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Chapter 2 Psychoanalytic and Neo-Analytic Theories of Personality

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Identify Sigmund Freud as the father of psychoanalysis, and explain the significance of the discovery of the unconscious. Define the three intrapsychic components of id, ego, superego, and explain how Freud thought they operated. Explain Freud’s levels of consciousness and his theories regarding instincts and defense mechanisms. Identify and explain the psychosexual stages of development. Describe some of the research that supports and refutes psychoanalytic theory. Identify key contributions to psychoanalytic theory offered by Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Anna Freud. List and describe the psychodynamic methods of assessment.

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Introduction In October of 1998, 21-year-old Matthew Wayne Shepard, a student at the University of Wyoming, was tortured one night by two young men and subsequently died of the severe head injuries he sustained. This case garnered national attention when, during the trial, it became apparent that Matthew was targeted because he was gay. Sadly, this is just one of the many hate crimes that continue to take place on a daily basis across the country and around the world.

Of course, not all anti-gay behavior manifests as physical violence. In 2009, Magnolia Pictures released the documentary Outrage, which targets political figures who have an aggressive anti-gay voting record (e.g., against gay marriage, against adoptions by gay parents, against HIV research, etc.), but who, according to the filmmaker, have secret lives involving gay relationships. The film raises the possibility that the underlying motivation for the aggressive anti-gay voting records is to express a self-hatred that is turned outward against others.

Examples in the public sphere of such counter-intuitive behaviors are not rare. Evangelical pastor Ted Haggard, who founded and led a megachurch in Colorado Springs, CO, preached and threw his political support behind a Colorado amendment that would ban gay marriage. However, in 2006, Mr. Haggard resigned from his leadership positions after it became widely known that he had been involved in a gay relationship with a male massage therapist. Additional information surfaced to indicate that this was not a one-time event with a single individual, but rather a broader pattern of behavior that Mr. Haggard ultimately acknowledged and attributed to a childhood experience of sexual abuse. In another example, former U.S. Congressman Mark Foley was active in helping to pass laws against the sexual abuse of minors and was a strong opponent of child pornography. Yet, in 2006, he resigned from Congress after allegations emerged that he had sent sexually explicit text messages to underage males who either had served or were currently serving as male congressional pages.

It is important to note that all of us engage in counter-intuitive behavior at times, where our motives are hard to discern. (Fortunately, we are not scrutinized in the same way as public figures.) What can explain such behavior? Why not simply steer clear of such issues, rather than publically and vociferously acting in a manner that opposes private behavior and underlying motivation?

This chapter provides a close examination of the psychoanalytic theory that can be applied to such actions and, in fact, seems to be most applicable to these apparent contradictions. It provides an overview of psychoanalytic theory and identifies the major theoretical contributions. It introduces Sigmund Freud and some of the pioneering psychoanalytic theorists and clinicians who have shaped the field. Most importantly, this chapter identifies a series of research questions derived from psychoanalytic theory, and explores some primary research that attempts to answer those questions—for example, is there an unconscious and can it influence our behavior without our awareness? We begin with an introduction to Freud and the context within which his theory was developed.

Psychoanalytic Model

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Hysterical pregnancy (or pseudocyesis), in which a man or woman exhibits the symptoms of pregnancy without actually being pregnant, is one example of a conversion disorder.

2.1 Biography and Sociocultural Setting of Freud and His Early Work Cultural and historical influences have much to do with a person’s way of thinking. It is important, therefore, to place Freud’s work in the context of the time in which he developed his groundbreaking work.

Sigmund Freud was born in Freiburg, Moravia, on May 6, 1856, the oldest of seven children. Freud was raised in the Victorian era, a time when dignity and restraint were valued. He grew up in a culture where sexual expression, especially among the bourgeoisie (middle class), was very restricted, especially in terms of what was publicly acceptable. Freud, growing up, did not experience open discussion or even recognition of human sexual expression (Gay, 1988).

He entered medical school at the University of Vienna in 1873 and was awarded his medical degree in 1881. His first position was at the Institute of Cerebral Anatomy, where conducted research comparing fetal and adult brains. He entered private practice as a neurologist because of the limited financial rewards of research and an anti-Semitic attitude (Freud was Jewish) that was prevalent in academia. He was strongly influenced by his studies with Jean Charcot, a well-known therapist who specialized in treating hysteria with hypnosis. Hysteria, a condition in which affected individuals convert their inner conflicts to physical symptoms, which are sometimes quite crippling, was considered a major disorder at that time. Freud was inspired, as were many others, by Charcot’s dramatic clinical demonstrations, and his interest in neurology quickly gave way to his new passion for psychopathology and the study of hysteria. (Note: Psychopathology is the clinical and scientific study of the disturbed mind. Psyche refers to the mind and pathology means illness.)

Freud was also influenced by Josef Breuer, who he met at the Institute of Physiology in the 1870s, and they became close friends and scientific collaborators. Breuer was an Austrian physician whose works had begun to lay the foundation for psychoanalysis. As Schwartz (1999) notes, “Inspired by Charcot and impressed by Breuer’s results, on his return to Vienna from Paris in 1886 Freud actively collaborated with Joseph Breuer on the problem of hysteria” (p. 44).

Freud spent much of the earlier part of his career on the subject of hysteria. Between 1894 and 1896, Freud presented seven papers on the origins of hysteria as the result of sexual trauma (he called this trauma theory). “Freud described severe cases, some coming to him after long unsuccessful institutional treatment, all of whom suffered trauma which had to be ‘classed as grave sexual injuries; some of them positively revolting'” (Schwartz, 1999, p. 66). Freud’s decision to relate hysteria to sexual trauma likely had its roots in the early work of Egyptian physicians and Greek philosophers, who each believed that symptoms of hysteria were due to improper positioning of the uterus. Interestingly, the treatment for this supposed misalignment involved fumigating the vagina (Alexander & Selesnik, 1966).

The patients that he treated, first with hypnosis and then with psychoanalysis, showed the effects of repressive Victorian society in their own repression of urges. Repression is psychological defense mechanism that is used to keep painful experiences and unacceptable impulses out of conscious awareness. What Freud observed and taught about repression was not entirely novel. However, Freud systematically studied how repressive forces operate and discovered that when an individual—or a society—is severely repressed, outbreaks of hysteria are common.

Although less prevalent, symptoms indicative of hysteria are still seen today, and manifest as either dissociative disorders, which typically involve interrupted memory and some loss of awareness and identity, or somatoform disorders, which involve physical symptoms that either originate as, or are strongly influenced by, psychological experiences. In fact, in reviewing some of the historical incidents of hysteria, it is interesting to note the frequency with which it occurs in gender-segregated contexts. In Malaysia in the 1970s and 80s, for example, school-age girls and young women working in factories were believed to have been affected by “spirits.” More recently in Mexico in 2007, an outbreak of unusual symptoms occurred for females at a Catholic boarding school. In 2010 in Brunei (southeast Asia), adolescents at two all-girl secondary schools manifested behavior such as screaming, shaking, and crying due to the belief that they were “possessed.” Although not exclusive to females in repressed societies or in female-only contexts, there does appear to be a greater incidence among women in such repressive settings, and this would parallel the fact that most of Freud’s patients with hysteria were likewise female. Freud attributed this female bias to anatomy (the uterus), but later work focused on the fact that woman are disproportionately repressed relative to men in society (see Karen Horney’s work discussed later in this chapter). Manifestations of group hysteria, where teenagers’ behavior is overwhelmed by their impulses, sometimes to the point of fainting, also illustrate a phenomenon called emotional contagion. Emotional contagion can sometimes lead a group into highly destructive and even deadly behaviors, such as have occurred in the United Kingdom during some soccer games.

Perhaps the closest parallel today to hysteria is conversion disorder, where one manifests a physical symptom in place of a psychological symptom. One of the more interesting examples of this can be seen in one of Freud’s most famous cases: Anna O, a young woman who apparently experienced an hysterical pregnancy, which is when a person experiences the physical symptoms of pregnancy but is not pregnant.

Today, this is somewhat rare and is referred to as pseudocyesis or false pregnancy. Pseudocyesis, which was first documented by Hippocrates in approximately 300 BCE, can involve such symptoms as amenorrhea, morning sickness, weight gain, and tender breasts. It has also been documented in men.

Freud wed Martha Bernays in 1886. They had six children, the most prominent of whom, Anna, became a psychoanalyst. She greatly advanced her father’s work, especially in applying his theory to the treatment of children.

Freud was forced to leave Austria prior to World War II, and he settled briefly in England. It was at this later stage in his career that Freud began to emphasize a second instinct

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underlying human behavior: a death instinct. (Earlier in his life he had emphasized a sexual instinct, presumably paralleling his own primary motives.) He suffered tremendously from cancer of the jaw, probably caused by his prodigious—thirty a day—cigar habit. He endured thirty-two operations but succumbed to the disease in 1939.

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Freud believed that the technique of free association could provide a window into the patient’s unconscious.

2.2 Psychoanalytic Theory The “discovery of the unconscious” and the development of the psychoanalytic method as a form of scientific inquiry heralded the birth of modern psychotherapy and stands as one of the intellectual milestones of the twentieth century (Schwartz, 1999). Freud’s terminology permeates contemporary language and shapes culture to a remarkable degree. Hardly a day goes by that one does not hear Freudian terms. Even far outside the professional psychological community, familiarity with many Freudian concepts, such as defense mechanisms, unconscious processes, id, ego, and superego, is commonplace. People talk of repressing their feelings or suppressing memories, projecting their issues, sublimating, and so forth. The word ego has become a mainstay of popular culture. Biographers often use various aspects of psychoanalysis to deepen our understanding of the people about whom they write. Even popular books, movies, and television shows depict or satirize some of Freud’s fundamental concepts.

What Freud set into motion with his unifying theoretical system—his metapsychology, meaning an attempt to go beyond what was known about the mind—was a new emphasis on our inner workings, hidden motivations, and primitive instinctual forces. In fact, Freud not only acknowledged these underlying motives, but suggested that they were more important than what could be found in consciousness. Freud argued that these instinctual forces, primarily sexual and aggressive impulses, are constrained by society, yet they exercise a profound influence on our behavior and our interpersonal relationships. Freud’s theoretical formulations, despite years of intense scrutiny and a backlash against some of his more controversial ideas, remain influential for many contemporary personality theories, and they continue to stimulate research.

The Fundamentals

Psychoanalytic theory is a comprehensive metatheory (i.e., going beyond psychology, with what knowledge we had at the time that it originated). It deals with the structure and operation of the mind, the formation of personality through stages of psychosexual development, the development of psychopathologies, and psychoanalytic methods for treating psychological disorders.

Psychoanalysis was born when Freud abandoned hypnosis in favor of the technique of free association, the uncensored expression of feelings, thoughts, and fantasies. “The patient talks, tells of his past experiences and present impressions, complains, confesses to his wishes and his emotional impulses” (Freud, 1966).

In his clinical work, Freud was faced with many reports of incest, and he initially took them at face value. This led him to believe that sexual trauma was at the root of most psychopathology. He later modified his trauma theory, suggesting instead that incest “memories” were usually fantasies produced by the patient. In the end, Freud changed his emphasis from trauma theory to the Oedipal complex (a son’s desire to possess his mother and jealousy and anger toward his father) to account for the many instances of sexual abuse his patients disclosed. “Fundamental to Freud’s thinking about the mind was a simple assumption: If there is a discontinuity in consciousness—something the person is doing but cannot report or explain—then the relevant mental processes necessary to ‘fill in the gaps’ must be unconscious” (Westen & Gabbard, 1999, p. 59). This assumption was profound and would create considerable controversy (Schwartz, 1999), which continues today in an emotional debate surrounding the validity of recovered memories of abuse. Specifically, some psychoanalytically informed theorists

and researchers (e.g., Kluft, 1987) suggest that repressed memories of trauma and abuse can lead to disorders such as Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID; formerly Multiple Personality Disorder). However, other researchers have been very critical of this hypothesis, suggesting that there is considerable fallibility in both those who make the diagnosis of DID (Levitt, 1988) and the process of recovering any memories (Loftus & Davis, 2006), especially those involving abuse (Lilienfeld et al., 1999). Resolving the debate of how to best differentiate actual memories of abuse and trauma from false memories will be of great importance for both clinicians and researchers (e.g., Belli, 2012; Gorman, 2008; Milchman, 2012).

Psychoanalysis was not only a theory of personality; it was also a method of investigation that was well suited to tapping into the unconscious, as well as a method of treatment (Westen & Gabbard, 1999). Arguably because psychoanalysis simultaneously served all of these functions, it was more susceptible to tautological errors. Had independent methods been used to tap the unconscious or treat the patient, this might have allowed for a more thorough testing of Freud’s ideas.

The Three Central Tenets of Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic theory has three central tenets. The first is that all human behavior is driven by sexual and aggressive instincts. The second is that people experience conflict, between the individual and society as well as within each individual. The third is that psychoanalytic theory assumes that all significant aspects of psychological functioning (including the aforementioned instincts and conflict) are unknown to the individual.

The Basic Instincts: Sex and Aggression

Instincts are central to Freudian theory. Freud postulated two primary instinctual drives: the sexual (or libidinal) and the aggressive. He theorized that these were opposing drives. The libido (sometimes referred to as Eros, the Greek god of love and sexual desire) represents the life instinct; aggression is a form of the death instinct (sometimes called Thanatos, a minor mythological Greek figure). Psychoanalysis emphasized the sex drive as the main source of psychic energy (Westen & Gabbard, 1999).

The importance of the sex drive was seen in Freud’s early work. Initially, he believed that psychopathology was due to sexual difficulties, and he even recommended more sexual activity as a cure for anxiety (e.g., Macmillan, 1997). However, he also suggested that other problems would arise due to masturbation. Freud had similar views regarding aggression: Too little and the individual would suffer from a passive personality, but too much might lead to hyper-aggression. Excessive aggressive impulses can be channeled

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into various types of psychopathology, such as perversions or personality disorders such as hysteria, obsessional neurosis, and passive aggression. When individuals are functioning well, they are able to use aggression in an appropriately competitive, self-protective, and assertive fashion. Freud believed that the key to mental health is to balance these forces so that the relationship between our needs and those of others are in equilibrium.

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Figure 2.2: The interplay of Freud’s id, ego, and superego Intrapsychic conflict is a staple of Freud’s theory, and the structures that sustain that conflict are depicted here.

2.3 The Structural Components of Personality Psychoanalysis is a structural theory, in that it offers us a blueprint of the structure of the psyche and an account of the interplay among the various psychic agents. This section introduces the basic structure and the interplay between the unconscious, the preconscious, and conscious awareness.

Topography of the Mind

Freud’s model of the mind’s topography is depicted in Figure 2.1. This is not a map of the brain, but a theoretical conception of how the mind organizes experience and how various components interrelate. The main divisions are the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious sectors. These divisions of mental structure are central to Freud’s theory and are defined as follows:

Unconscious: Refers to the portion of the mind of which we are unaware. It includes impulses, fantasy, and primary processes. This represents the vast majority of the mind, though unconscious material is often completely inaccessible. Indeed, even if material can be moved from the unconscious to the preconscious and eventually to conscious awareness, it takes a long time and considerable therapy.

Figure 2.1: Topographical representation of Freud’s theory on the mind and the role of anxiety and repression Much of Freud’s theory is focused on the interplay between the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious and how defense mechanisms function.

Preconscious: The preconscious is the portion of the mind where unconscious material is transformed or “worked over” by defense mechanisms such as condensation and displacement. Any material that is moving from the unconscious to conscious awareness first must go through the preconscious. Unlike the unconscious, which requires intensive therapy before an individual can get a glimpse of its contents, the preconscious can be moved to awareness simply by directing attention to the material. Researchers subsequently operationalized the term the cognitive unconscious, which was quite distinct from Freud’s unconscious, and more akin to his concept of the preconscious (see Kihlstrom, 1987). This is an important issue in the research to be described.

Conscious: The conscious portion of the mind contains the aspects of ourselves of which we are aware. Freud believed this represented a very small part of our mind.

Structural Components of the Mind

Freud described three major components of mental structure: the id, ego, and superego (see Figure 2.2). These structures were characterized as having a developmental sequence, with the id being present at birth, followed later by the ego, and eventually the superego. Freud also believed that the id was only influenced by instincts; as other external sources exert their influence, then the ego and superego can develop. Each of these structures is here described in more detail.

IdId

Freud stated that the id is the first of the structures to influence behavior. The id includes the instincts or drives with which we are born, and it is driven by primary process thinking; that is, its thinking derives from inner thoughts and fantasies that are egocentric in nature and lacking in objectivity. Freud argued that the id resides primarily in the unconscious and has no contact with objective reality.

The id operates by what Freud termed the pleasure principle: the attempt to avoid pain and

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maximize pleasure. The id constantly seeks to discharge any buildup of tension and to return to a state of comfort or homeostasis. When hungry, it compels us to eat, and when there is a buildup of sexual tension, it looks for release without regard for consequences—hence it is called a primary process.

Primary process discharges tension by using the imagery of an object to remove the tension. This can occur because the wish is buried in the unconscious, so its resolution can also be in the unconscious. The resolution imagery (or hallucinatory experience) represents wish fulfillment. Primary process can be expressed in fantasy or in dreams. Almost everyone engages in some form of sexual or narcissistic (self-gratification) fantasy to reduce tension. For example, after being belittled in an office meeting by one’s employer, the targeted employee might daydream about the outcome of an upcoming tennis match in which his boss is humiliated in defeat. Individuals who are overly dominated by primary process are usually psychotic. They are overly dependent on fantasy as a way of gaining gratification; in other words, real life is not sufficiently gratifying for them.

Although being dominated by the id can indicate psychopathology for adults, normally functioning infants are thought to fully experience this primitive stage. Their focus is on the gratification of instinctual urges, without consideration of the consequences of their actions. Freud also argued that such urges are subject to instant gratification, meaning that the urge or desire must be satisfied right away. In fact, a key developmental milestone is when children are able to start delaying their gratification, meaning that they can put off satisfying an urge, knowing that it can be satisfied in the future. According to Freud, the id is the structure that creates physical drive (e.g., libido) and energizes us, and is the original level of personality from which the ego and superego become differentiated as development proceeds.

EgoEgo

The ego is the psychic structure whose primary function is that of mediation. Freud believed that our lives are filled with conflict, and he believed that our ability to function effectively was determined in large part by our ability to mediate these conflicts. Thus, a well-functioning ego is critical to adaptive behavior.

There are two direct sources of conflict that the ego must mediate. The first is the conflict between the instinctual, gratification-seeking aims of the id and the demands and restrictions of the external world (society). In other words, the id seeks instant gratification of basic desires, but society places practical constraints on one’s ability to address those desires, at least in a public forum. The second source of conflict is internal, and arises between the self-gratifying demands of the id and the unrealistic expectations of the superego, which reflects what we should do (more on this shortly).

The ego functions on the reality principle, which is the recognition that gratification is subject to what reality makes possible. In a sense, with the development of the ego, reality attempts to supersede the gratification-seeking pleasure principle of the id. Now the ego incorporates reality testing into the individual’s functioning so that realistic aims and plans can be carried out in place of unreasonable desires. Reality testing is essentially an information-processing function in which the consequences of actions are weighed against the value of gratification. This means that one of the main functions of the ego is to problem-solve appropriate ways of satisfying the individual’s needs. The ego works in conjunction with the id, attempting to balance impulses, but also using the id’s energy to provide drive, creativity, and motivation. When there is a breakdown of the ego, individuals lose most of their ability to perceive reality adequately and to control the force of primary process. The result is that constraints on behavior are often temporarily removed, and individuals may engage in highly unacceptable and even criminal behavior.

SuperegoSuperego

In Freud’s theory, the superego is the mental structure that represents the internalization of society’s values and morals, as portrayed by parental figures and social institutions. The superego, which operates by the morality principle, represents how the individual should behave. It arises as the child learns to differentiate good and bad behavior, and it influenced by the punishment and praise that parents provide and by the consequences of behavior. Importantly, because the superego is, like the id, buried in the unconscious, also has no contact with reality. Thus, the morality espoused is not normal morality, but ideal morality and perfection. When over-functioning, it can lead to what is described a punitive superego, which may require the self to suffer guilt that can lead to neurotic behavior and, in its extreme form, can be expressed in psychopathological adaptations, such as masochism or self-sabotaging behavior. Our conscience is the part of our superego that determines the right course of action, trying to balance personal needs and societal-familial expectations. Guilt arises in the system when we ignore what our conscience tells us.

Anxiety

A well-functioning psyche reflects an id and superego that are perfectly balanced by the activities of the ego. However, when this balance is not achieved (and this was a common outcome, according to Freud), the result is the experience of anxiety.

Freud’s described three basic categories of anxiety: moral, realistic, and neurotic. Moral anxiety refers to the tension generated when the id gains too much control over the

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ego. This is due to the fact that the superego demands that the individual live up to the ego ideal; when this does not occur, the superego induces guilt. Realistic anxiety is a rational response to actual danger, which triggers a flight-fight-or-freeze response. It reflects how the nervous system evolved to protect us from danger and is mediated by some of the older systems of the brain (parts of the limbic system). Thus, realistic anxiety requires an immediate response: Stay and fight, run and escape, or freeze and submit to the danger (Sapolsky, 2004). In contrast, neurotic anxiety has a kind of “free-floating” quality unrelated to any immediate threat. Neurotic anxiety is sometimes converted into various symptoms, such as obsessional neurosis, where the individual engages in compulsions that serve to reduce the anxiety so that it does not become overwhelming. This behavior is also reflected in our modern day diagnostic labels—specifically, obsessive-compulsive disorder.

One of the most common presentations in clinical practice today, especially among women, is something termed generalized anxiety disorder (Grant et al., 2009) a concept very similar to Freud’s neurotic anxiety. Generalized anxiety disorder is marked by pervasive feelings of anxiety that are unrelated to any obvious threat. Freud believed that this type of generalized anxiety (he also referred to expectant anxiety) was one of the main features of neuroses.

So how do we manage the anxiety? Freud outlined a large number of defense mechanisms employed by the ego to combat anxiety, and most of the time they work. However, some occasions, our defense mechanisms don’t work, and in those instances the unconscious material slips out. Consider what has become known as “Freudian slips,” where we may say something we didn’t mean to say, but it may still represent something that was on our mind (see Baars, 1992, for a review). The defense mechanisms are summarized the next section.

Defense Mechanisms

One of Freud’s many astute observations was that of defensive functioning. Informed by his clinical case studies, and undoubtedly considerable introspection, Freud catalogued dozens of ways in which individuals try to protect themselves from the effects of anxiety. Freud came to believe that these defenses were commonplace, as he observed their occurrence in everyone. His daughter, Anna Freud, added considerably to the list of defenses, and to date over 100 of them have been catalogued (Blackman, 2004).

A defense mechanism is a mental operation that protects an individual against anxiety that might result when primary process material threatens to break through to the conscious or preconscious mind. For example, a recently widowed mother of two may need to defend against the anxiety that results from being alone, and so she continues to set the dinner table for her deceased husband. This may be an example of a defense mechanism called denial. Denial reduces the conflict, but as long as the denial “works,” the problematic behavior continues. In this case, the widow never really comes to terms with the passing of her husband. Freud considered denial to be one of the most basic defense mechanisms, and in a sense, it lies at the heart of all other defenses. That is, we will see that the other defenses seem to involve denial plus some additional psychological reaction.

One of the more advanced defenses, according to Freud, is sublimation, the defense mechanism through which the individual finds ways of transforming unacceptable urges into more acceptable behaviors. Aggression in sports, or even pursuing an art, is sometimes cited as an example of the sublimation of unacceptable aggressive urges into more appropriate, and even adaptive, outlets. Freud also wrote about surgeons, who he believed sublimated their aggressive instinct (it is hard to imagine a more aggressive behavior than cutting someone open with a scalpel) into something productive—the healing of medical illnesses through surgery.

An especially complicated defense mechanism is reaction formation, in which one adopts attitudes and engages in behaviors that are in direct, overt opposition to threatening unconscious impulses, in order to defend against those impulses. The theory behind this defense mechanism is that the threatening internal experience (thought or emotion) is great that simply denying it is not only insufficient, but impossible. As a result, the individual must overcompensate by acting in direct opposition to it (i.e., some of the overt behaviors are in direct opposition to the internal experience, though the internal experience is unconscious). Several examples of reaction formation are included in this chapter, beginning with the opening segment (see the experiences of Ted Haggard and Mark Foley), and this defense mechanism is examined more closely in “Putting Psychodynamic Theory to the Test: Part 2” in this chapter.

Freud’s identification and elaboration of defense mechanisms has added much to our understanding of personality psychology and continues to contribute to our understanding of how we use them to adapt (Holi, Sammallahti, & Aalberg, 1999). For a more complete list of Freud’s defense mechanisms, see Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Common defense mechanisms

Defense Definition Example

Acting out Translating conflicts into action with little or no intervening reflection.

A student disrupts class because she is angry over an unfair grade.

Denial Refusing to acknowledge some painful external or subjective reality obvious to others.

A woman refuses to acknowledge a pregnancy despite positive test results.

Devaluation Attributing unrealistic negative qualities to self or others as a means of punishing the self or reducing the impact of the devalued item.

A student suddenly criticizes as a terrible teacher a formerly admired professor who has given him a D on a term paper.

Displacement Displacing conflicts from a threatening object onto a less threatening one.

A student who has been criticized by his instructor in history class comes home from school and starts an argument with a younger sibling.

Dissociation Dealing with conflict by disrupting the After breaking up with a lover, a suicidal student is

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Expert on Priming

integration of consciousness, memory, or accurate perception of the internal and external world.

suddenly unable to recall the time during which they were together.

Fantasy Avoiding conflict by creating imaginary situations that satisfy drives or desires.

A student from a troubled home daydreams about going to college to become a famous psychologist.

Idealization Attributing unrealistic positive qualities to self or others.

A student worried about his intellectual ability begins to idolize a tutor.

Isolation of affect Defusing conflict by separating ideas from affects, thus retaining an awareness of intellectual or factual aspects but losing touch with threatening emotions.

A biology student sacrifices a laboratory animal without worrying about its right to existence, quality of life, or emotional state.

Omnipotence Creating an image of oneself as incredibly powerful, intelligent, or superior to overcome threatening possibilities or feelings.

A student facing a difficult final exam asserts that there is nothing about the material that she doesn’t know.

Projection Disowning unacceptable emotions or personal qualities by attributing them to others.

A student attributes his own anger to the professor, and thereby comes to see himself as a persecuted victim.

Projection identification Projecting unpleasant feelings and reactions onto others and declaring that the reaction is in response to the recipient’s behavior.

A student attributes her own anger to the professor but sees her response as a justifiable reaction to persecution.

Rationalization Constructing after the fact an explanation for behavior to justify one’s action in the eyes of self or others.

A professor who unknowingly creates an impossible exam justifies it on the basis that it is necessary to shock students back to serious study.

Reaction formation Containing unacceptable thoughts or impulses by adopting a position that expresses the opposite.

A student who hates some identifiable group writes an article protesting their unfair treatment by the university.

Repression Withholding forbidden thoughts and wishes from conscious awareness.

A student’s jealous desire to murder a rival is denied access to conscious awareness.

Splitting Maintaining opposite viewpoints about a single object, keeping these opinions in deliberately unintegrated opposition, which results in cycles of idealization and devaluation as either extreme is projected onto self and others.

A student vacillates between worship and contempt for a professor, sometimes seeing her as intelligent and powerful and himself as ignorant and weak, and then switching roles, depending on their interactions.

Sublimation Channeling unacceptable into socially acceptable behavior.

A student who is competitive and aggressive towards his siblings funnels those impulses into academic efforts and successes.

*Undoing Attempting to rid oneself of guilt through behavior that compensates the injured party actually or symbolically.

A professor who designs a test that is too difficult creates an excess of easy extra-credit assignments.

* The more modern concept of counterfactual thinking is somewhat equivalent to undoing.

Source: Millon, T., & Davis, R. D. (1996a). An evolutionary theory of personality disorders. In J. F. Clarkin, M. F. Lenzenweger (Eds.). Major theories of personality disorder (pp. 221–346). New York, NY: Guilford Press, p. 226. Reprinted by permission of Guilford Publications.

Neurosis and Symptom Formation

Freud developed his theory to explain the development of psychological symptoms and clinical syndromes, such as then-common hysterias and phobias. He called all of these conditions neuroses. A neurosis consists of a cluster of symptoms typified by anxiety or indecision and some degree of social maladjustment. In a sense, the symptoms are a compromise between urges and drives and social and environmental constraints. They allow partial expression of the drive, but also may include an aspect of self-punishment: One needs to suffer when one’s instinctual organization is activated beyond a level that can be regulated by the psychic structures.

As Freud explains neuroses, they often involve past events that were associated with high anxiety, fear, or trauma. In time, memory of the event disappears or is repressed, but the energy associated with it may later

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Expert on Priming From Title:

The Power of the Unconscious: Automatic Brain

(https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?

wID=100753&xtid=51894)

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What are some examples of the influence of unconscious processing (priming) on daily decisions and actions?

2. Can you generate any other explanations for these findings other than the influence of the unconscious?

be expressed in symptoms of neuroses. Symptoms such as phobias, compulsions, and obsessions are the way the unconscious mind transfers energy from the conflict into something that expresses the energy, but hides the conflict from the affected individual (Freud, 1966, p. 298). For example, if an individual has an obsession with dirt on the hands and a compulsion to constantly wash them (obsessive-compulsive disorder), Freud might argue that the person is in fact wracked with guilt over some behavior, and the repetitive act highlights the guilt and the attempts to cleanse the self of the guilt. The preconscious mind often expresses this “forgotten” conflict in altered form in dreams, slips of the tongue, or even daydreams.

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Diego Cervo/iStock/Thinkstock

An unresolved oral stage in childhood may result in an oral fixation in adulthood. Nail biting is one manifestation of oral fixation.

Beyond the Text: Classic Writings

What does it mean when we say, “You’re so anal!”?

In “Character and Anal Erotism” (1908), Freud described an anal character and how it relates to sexuality and everyday life. Sometimes reading the works of Freud in his own words (as opposed to what is conveyed in a textbook) can provide a better example of his thinking. Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUPSY330.12.2/{pdfs}ch_2_character_and_anal_erotism_freud.pdf)

2.4 Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud’s theory represents the first comprehensive developmental or stage model, and he recognized that development progresses in a hierarchical, stage-like manner, in which mastery of the previous stage is important to one’s ability to negotiate subsequent ones. Freud’s theory of human development and personality formation is reflected in his description of psychosexual development. The sexual instincts, also referred to as libido, are one of the major forces in this developmental process, hence the label psychosexual development. Libidinal pressure—the sexually based urged to survive and procreate (also termed the life instinct)—fuels development.

Freud theorized that individuals progress through a series of psychosexual stages. Each of these stages emphasizes different developmental tasks and challenges, and Freud suggested that libido is focused on a particular part of the body during each of these stages. For a variety of reasons, an individual can become fixated (i.e., stuck) in one of these stages, and this results in different personality types.

We will here outline each of the stages, and the personality types that might emerge based on fixations in each stage, keeping in mind that all of the intrapsychic events to be described were hypothesized to occur in the unconscious (i.e., one would have no awareness of them).

Oral Stage

The first stage of life, lasting until about age 2, is termed by Freud as the oral stage. The term oral is used because of the infant’s proclivity to explore the world largely through his or her mouth. Moreover, one of the most important events occurring at this time is breastfeeding (or bottle feeding), which not only provides nourishment, but also warmth and intimate contact. It is also named as such because it is marked by the need to suck, which is a powerful, biologically based survival reflex. During this stage, gratification and satisfaction are received primarily through other oral activities, including thumb sucking and swallowing. Hence the libido is expressed in the oral region. Although these represent the specific behaviors that the infant is engaged in, Freud suggested that the greater significance is that this establishes a model for satisfying needs later in life.

Perhaps of greatest importance in the oral stage is the process of weaning, as this signals the infant’s progression in life to a more independent state. Freud believed that weaning might be traumatic if it is too abrupt or uncaring, and the trauma might later be apparent in character traits and habits of the adult. Freud believed that when the infant is either weaned too soon or too abruptly or, on the other hand, weaned too late, that the child would become fixated (stuck) in the oral stage, meaning that the child’s personality would reflect difficulties negotiating the satisfaction of basic needs.

Freud identified two personality types that might result from oral fixations. Oral dependency is thought to occur because the infant was weaned too late so that they were overly dependent on their mother for too long. Freud predicted that this dependency would play out in adult relationships, with these individuals requiring and expecting a great deal of attention and support from others. In contrast, oral aggression refers to the personality that occurs when the weaning has occurred too soon or too abruptly. Freud believed that as adults, these individuals would aggress against others in order to have their needs met because they would feel as though they had been short-changed in life.

Anal Stage

The next stage, lasting until about age 4, is the anal stage, during which the primary source of pleasure is derived from the voiding of feces. This period of socialization generally sets the stage for the first significant conflict between parents and child (i.e., toilet training). Parents want their children toilet trained, but children are not always willing or able. Parents reward children for complying and express disappointment when they have “accidents.” Thus, the central theme of this stage is that the child is developing a sense of how to autonomously manage an important bodily function, and this is accomplished by negotiating for control with their parents.

Referring back to the development of the structural components of the mind, Freud believed that it is at this time that the ego starts to differentiate from the id, and the reality principle begins to appear. There is the beginning of crude superego functioning with the development of the shame that comes with punishment and with failure to comply with parental wishes. During toilet training, children can express autonomy or control by refusing to comply and sometimes by deliberately soiling themselves.

As was the case in the oral stage, the child can either achieve a successful balance of having some control and autonomy or can struggle to negotiate this stage and become fixated with control. The anal expulsive personality is thought to occur when the child deals with control by giving up efforts to control the bowels at all. Thus, this might be marked by a delay in toilet training. The anal retentive personality reflects the child’s attempt to deal with anal stage issues by over-controlling the situation. As adults, the anal retentive personality might involve frantic attempts to control all aspects of one’s own life—and perhaps even those of others. Freud suggested this would also result in hoarding money (i.e., being stingy), because money is means of control. In contrast, anal expulsive people want nothing to do with control, allowing others to make all the decisions, no matter how minor.

Phallic Stage

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to read it.

Reference: Freud, S. (1908b). Character and anal eroticism. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud. (Vol. 9, pp. 169–175). London: Hogarth Press. Retrieved from http://www.pldocs.docdat. com/docs/index-95699.html? page=242 (http://www.pldocs.docdat.com/docs/index- 95699.html?page=242)

The third, and arguably most important, stage of psychosexual development is the phallic stage, which lasts from about 4 to 8 years of age. During this phase, the primary source of gratification is derived from the genitals. The child may now touch, rub, or exhibit genitals, as well as show interest in the anatomy of family members. It is at this time that they more fully develop ideas concerning sex and birth and pay close attention to the differences (especially anatomical) between boys and girls. Thus, it is during this time that the child develops his or her sense of gender identity by identifying with the same-sex parent. Again, Freud hypothesized about fixations in this stage and the possible resulting behavior. He suggested that when children identify with their same-sex parents, then normal heterosexual adult relationships would occur. In contrast, Freud believed, if the child identifies with the opposite-sex parent, this would result in homosexuality (or a homosexual impulse).

As noted, the majority of individuals would experience same-sex identification (i.e., you see yourself as most similar to, and want to be like, your same-sex parent), and Freud outlined something he called the Oedipus complex, where children compete with the same-sex parent in an attempt to gain the attention of or possess the opposite-sex parent. Freud believed that the Oedipus complex begins to unfold in the phallic stage.

OedipusOedipus Complex Complex

Like Oedipus, the mythological Greek figure who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother, Freud believed that the male child develops sexually based feelings for his mother during the phallic stage. The theory assumes that we all initially start with a strong desire to possess our mothers, but the process differentiates from here forward for males and females. For males, the son’s desire for his mother places the father in the role of a competing suitor for his mother’s attentions. Freud also believed that the perceived competition with one’s father would result in the fear or anxiety of being permanently eliminated as a competitor by means of castration. This castration anxiety, or fear of the father’s aggression, is ultimately what sets young boys on track to adult heterosexual relationships, as they learn to identify (rather than compete) with their fathers and obtain someone like their mother (rather than competing for their actual mother).

ElectraElectra Complex Complex

The related experience for females is labeled the Electra complex. Unlike the male who fears castration, the female, realizing she has no penis, believes she has already been castrated. She blames her mother for the castration and is drawn to her father because he does possess a penis. It is theorized that girls then experience penis envy, which Freud defined as the envy of the anatomical structure (not a metaphorical envy of what the penis represented in society at the turn of the century—that figurative interpretation would emerge from other theorists). Freud believed that there was no easy resolution for females, though the resolution still involves a fully developed superego and fully functioning ego. Freud believed that part of the resolution for a female is to essentially possess a penis by proxy; first by dating, then marrying, and eventually by having a child (ideally male). Due to this more indirect way of resolving penis envy, Freud considered females to have less-well-developed personalities, and his belief in the superiority of men was often the target of feminist writers.

Latency Stage

The latency stage of development (from about age 6 to 12) is a time when preoccupation with sexuality lessens. The Oedipal complex, despite being unconscious, is traumatizing, and the child prefers to inhibit and repress sexuality. Freud describes this as a lengthy, innocent interlude, during which children prefer being with same-sex peers. During this phase, much energy is devoted to absorbing cultural and intellectual experiences, socializing with friends, and investing energy in a wide range of pursuits.

Genital Stage

This final stage of psychosexual development, beginning at approximately age 11 to 14, culminates in the fullest level of maturity, assuming development was not significantly delayed by earlier fixations. The term genital phase reflects the idea that the primary focus of the individual is the stimulation of the genitals. Importantly, however, the individual’s main preoccupation is now no longer the experience of pleasure for its own sake (as it was in the phallic stage), but the development of mature relationships with others. Freud stated that ideally libidinal energy is now directed (expressed) toward adult romantic partners of the opposite sex. Freud believed that any deviations from this course, which might include frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships, not dating, or homosexuality, would be an indication of problematic functioning, likely as a result of earlier fixations. The timing of this last developmental stage is thought to be stimulated by the hormonal and biochemical changes that prime the individual for puberty (sexual maturity).

During the genital period, the narcissistic (self-centered) seeking of continual pleasure must be exchanged for mature love and caring for others. If the individual accomplishes this task, the infant’s earliest expressions of libido—that is, of the sexual instinct—will have been transformed to mature love and the capacity for empathy. But if the individual has had too much or too little gratification along the way, the outcome may be apparent in one of a variety of personality disorders.

Character Traits and Disorders in Psychosexual Development

Freud’s conception of the way personality and personality disorders develop was based on his model of psychosexual development. According to psychoanalytic theory, the development of character is influenced by how the psychosexual stages are navigated. If there is a normal progression, the individual will develop a mature and normal character. But if a fixation occurs, there will be a buildup of excess libidinal energy related to the erogenous zones associated with that stage, and problems related to that fixation will continue to manifest throughout one’s lifetime. For example, a person fixated at the oral stage, perhaps because of excessive gratification at that stage, might later

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display dependency (recall the oral-dependent personality). Of course, there would be a difference between the manifestation of a dependent trait (i.e., one who tends to rely on others) as opposed to dependent personality disorder. The latter would be marked by dysfunctions in daily living due to the pervasive and excessive need to be submissive and dependent on others and to stay in relationships (even abusive ones) to meet those needs. Table 2.2 provides an overview of the psychosexual stages of development and the personality disorders that may result secondary to fixations in each stage. Some of these personality disorders were actually elaborated by theorists from the neo-analytic movement, which followed Freud (see Chapter 3 for a thorough discussion).

Table 2.2: Stages of psychosexual development and character types

Stage of development Approximate age Character type

Oral stage 0 to 2 years Dependent

Anal stage 2 to 4 years Compulsive

Phallic stage 4 to 8 years Narcissistic

Latency stage 6 to 12 years Passive*

Genital stage 11–14 years – to adulthood Hysterical

*Not included in neo-analytic theory but may be a logical type.

Critique and Conclusions on Freud’s Theoretical Contributions

The breadth of Freud’s theoretical contributions is matched by the fervent and broad-based nature of the criticisms levied at his theory and at the clinical and assessment tools that are based on psychodynamic theory (e.g., Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2001). Perhaps the most noteworthy counterargument is simply that Freud’s theory is often tautological and not open to empirical investigation. This may be the most salient criticism because it has led some to conclude that psychoanalytic theory is more pseudoscience than science (for a review, see Cioffi, 1998).

Due to the complexity of the theory, it is unlikely that any single experiment or set of experiments could adequately test the entire theory; however, there have been credible attempts to investigate many important aspects of Freud’s theory (see Westen, 1998). As an example, researchers have culled the scientific literature and concluded that although there is scientific support for some of the defense mechanisms, there is little published research to scientifically support the functioning of most of the defense mechanisms as forwarded by Freud (i.e., even in some instances when the phenomenon may be present, it does not appear to function as a defense; see Baumeister et al., 1998).

Today, Freud’s standing in the scientific community is generally as an outsider. He clearly has contributed many ideas that have spurred programs of research. Some of his ideas have been empirically supported, but many have not (see Chapter 3 for a more extensive discussion). However, what is undeniable is that Freud’s work has had a tremendous immeasurable impact on the field, not simply because of the durability of his ideas, but more because of his influence on the theorists who followed him and based their ideas his seminal work. These individuals are often characterized as neo-analytic theorists, and in the next section, we consider some of the more well-known individuals in this movement.

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WARNER BROS PICTURES/Album/Album/SuperStock

This popular figure is a merging of the traditional hero archetype and archetypes that represent a darker side.

2.5 The Neo-Analytic Movement Freud’s work stimulated many other theoreticians who shared some of the basic assumptions of psychoanalytic theory, but who nevertheless established separate schools of thought. Neo-analytic theorists are those whose work was based on, and branched out from, Freud, but whose work typically differed from (or was even opposed to) Freud on least one major theoretical tenet. As a result, each of these schools of thought are sufficiently distinct to merit considering them separately. We here present a brief overview of some of these individuals and their major theoretical contributions.

Carl Jung and the Collective Unconscious

Carl Gustav Jung was like Freud in that he was awarded a medical degree and emphasized psychiatry (he was both a psychiatrist and psychotherapist). Jung collaborated with Freud from 1907 to 1912, becoming one of Freud’s favorite followers. But Jung eventually broke with Freud and began to develop his own theory, which he called analytic psychology, as well as his own method of practice, in which the primary goal was to integrate conscious and unconscious thought and experience (termed individuation) while still maintaining some degree of autonomy.

Jung’s theoretical disagreements with Freud largely centered on: (1) a refusal to accept the sexual instinct as the primary force in mental life and (2) the emphasis on the collective unconscious, rather than the personal unconscious. According to Jung, the collective unconscious refers to what is essentially a public-access and universal version the unconscious that contains memory traces common to all humans. The collective unconscious refers to the inherited themes that are represented in symbolic ways by different cultures, and Jung found these themes expressed in literature, art, and dreams. These themes deal with common experiences, such confronting death, gaining independence, and striving for mastery. Jung termed these common, recurrent, and symbolically represented themes archetypes of the collective unconscious. Examples of archetypes of the unconscious include concepts such as God, the self, birth, death, the wise old man, the nurturing mother, and power symbolized as the sun or a lion.

In his analytic work with patients, Jung sought to bring material from the collective unconscious into conscious awareness through the use of free association and dream analysis, two techniques he borrowed from Freud. Indeed, although Freud is widely known for his work on the interpretation of dreams, Jung also contributed heavily to this practice. One important difference between the two was that Jung placed a greater emphasis on the manifest content of dreams (the surface meaning), whereas Freud was more likely to make interpretations of the latent content, the underlying meaning (typically sexual or aggressive in nature). Jung also believed that one could examine the presence archetypes in dreams and predict the incidence of creativity (i.e., more creative individuals have more archetypes of the unconscious in their dreams, and creativity comes from the sampling of this unconscious material).

Jung also introduced the concept of the persona, a term for the identity or mask that individuals adopt. Jung suggested that we consciously create the persona, but that it is derived from our experience of the collective unconscious as well as conscious experiences (e.g., socialization). Jung argued that one of the primary functions of the persona was to serve as a compromise between who we are and what society expects us to be by both hiding aspects of ourselves that are incongruent with societal expectations and “creating” aspects of ourselves that are consistent with society’s expectations. (Note: The persona is similar to the actual and ought self-concepts forwarded by Higgins and discussed in Chapter 9).

One aspect of Jung’s writings that actually undermined the proliferation of his ideas in psychology was that he focused on mysticism, as indicated by his writing on religions, philosophy, and the occult. In fact, Jung believed that these areas were all central to the process of individuation.

In what is arguably his most durable contribution, Jung (1923) developed the concept of two attitude types: the extrovert, who tends to be outgoing and very socially oriented, and the introvert, who tends to be quiet and withdrawn and is more interested in ideas than in people. Jung also described four functions (thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting), which, when crossed with the two attitudes, result in eight basic types (e.g., extroverted sensing, introverted sensing, extroverted feeling, introverted feeling, etc.). These basic types would later serve as the basis for the famous Myers-Briggs Inventory, which is still widely used in industrial-organizational settings, and this is where some aspects of Jung’s

theory continue to thrive.

Alfred Adler and Inferiority Complex

Like his contemporaries, Alfred Adler was also awarded a medical degree, but he practiced ophthalmology and general practice before moving to psychiatry and joining a discussion group with Freud and Jung. Adler, Freud, and Jung are typically credited as the founding fathers of what is known as depth psychology, which emphasizes the psychodynamics of the unconscious. However, Adler was the first to break away from Freud’s inner circle, founding the school of individual psychology (Adler, 1923), which posited that all people were unique and that no theory could capture their complexity. He also adopted a holistic approach (focusing on the importance of the whole) in his work, emphasizing the importance of social context. Indeed, Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all people would have to experience; occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (e.g., friendships), and love tasks (finding a long-term intimate partner). He also emphasized that a social, rather than sexual or aggressive, motive underlies all human behavior. Perhaps most noteworthy was Adler’s clear emphasis on conscious motivation (i.e., ego psychology), as indicated by the fact that the three fundamental social tasks are explicitly known and pursued. Of course, Adler still believed in the unconscious and its influence on the individual, but relative to both Freud and Jung, he attributed considerably more importance to conscious experience.

Adler is probably best known for his formulation of the concept of the inferiority complex. He believed that all people struggle with feelings of inferiority, which are based on

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some perceived organ inferiority. This concept refers to the fact that as children we feel inferior in some way to others (especially adults), whether physically, intellectually, or even emotionally. As adults we might continue to experience that perceived inferiority and try to compensate for it (referred to as compensatory strivings). Thus, the child who felt powerless may become an adult whose only focus is to obtain power and control over others. Adler thought that overcoming the inferiority complex did not depend on becoming superior, but rather on a recognizing and coming to terms with the feelings of low self-esteem underlying the complex.

Adler also differed from Freud with respect to free will, as he thought that humans have an inherent will and power to change, whereas Freud did not. Unlike Freud, who dealt with the dark side of human nature (our unconscious, deep-seated, conflict-laden urges), Adler emphasized our more positive aspects and the forces that drive us to become self- actualized—that is, to become all the good things we can be. In this respect, Adler’s work influenced the later writings of those in the existential/humanistic movement (e.g., Maslow, May) and also pioneered what would later become known as the positive psychology movement.

As noted in the discussion of the Oedipus complex, Freud emphasized the relationship between the child and their parents as the key to character development. Adler, however, suggested that it was one’s relationships (or lack thereof) with siblings that were of greater relevance to personality development. This resulted in considerable theoretical contributions to the impact of birth order, and it laid the groundwork for subsequent researchers to investigate the topic.

Adler believed that first-borns, because they are only children for a period of time, have a favored status, but must eventually deal with the shared attention once their younger siblings are born (i.e., they are in essence “dethroned” from their position of privilege). As a result of this experience, Adler believed that first-borns, relative to later-borns and middle children, would be the most likely to experience neuroticism and other psychological problems; he even predicted that they had the highest propensity for being incarcerated or psychiatrically institutionalized. However, on the more favorable side, Adler believed that first-borns would have higher rates of achievement.

According to Adler, later-borns are seen as pampered, and because they feel some pressure to meet the standards established by their older siblings, they may adopt a defeatist attitude and be less effortful. Adler also believed that later-borns would struggle to properly develop empathy, and as a result, this would inhibit social growth.

Adler thought that middle children were likely to experience the most sibling rivalry with their older sibling, and because the older child has the age advantage (bringing a physical and mental advantage), the middle child is likely to fail in this competition more often than not. However, he believed that the middle child would be the most likely develop in a healthy manner because he or she would not have to deal with the psychological consequences of either being displaced by younger siblings or being overly indulged.

Adler’s ideas on birth order spurred considerable research, and the findings have generally supported the idea that first-borns are more likely to achieve and are more conscientious (Paulhus, Trapnell, & Chen, 1999; Sulloway, 1996). However, birth order is a difficult variable to study because it is not possible to experimentally manipulate it. Thus, many confounds emerge when studying birth order, because first-borns are more prevalent among wealthier and better-educated individuals who tend to have fewer children. Thus, one problem with much of the birth order literature is that ultimately it may simply tell us that children from well-educated, wealthy backgrounds are more likely to succeed relative to those from less wealthy and less-educated backgrounds.

Anna Freud and Child Psychology

Anna Freud was the favorite and youngest of Sigmund and Martha’s six children. As noted earlier, she is renowned for carrying on and extending her father’s work. Anna Freud ultimately became the heir apparent to Freud’s school of psychoanalysis, as she maintained an interest in preserving her father’s theoretical and technical contributions.

Anna Freud is probably most noted for her contributions to child psychology. She expanded the practice of psychoanalysis to the treatment of emotional disorders of childhood and became a well-respected clinician in her own right. The classic techniques were not readily adaptable to child patients. She therefore encouraged the use of play therapy and fantasy with children. In play, which is natural for children, she believed they might reveal their conflicts and anxieties. The projection of conflict might occur in part with the child analyst and in part with the play therapy objects.

Another of Anna Freud’s major contributions was her further elaboration of defense mechanisms, as she identified many new ones that she observed in clinical practice. Some proved to be critical aids for understanding both children and adults. When Freud turned 80, Anna presented him with her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (Young-Bruehl, 1988).

Karen Horney and Repressed Womanhood

Despite the early domination of this field by men, Karen Horney had a significant impact on both personality theory and research. In her theory, Horney emphasized the role of unconscious basic anxiety, suggesting that children repress feelings of hostility towards adults so as not to undermine their ability to meet their own needs. In order to deal with this basic anxiety, Horney suggested that any one of three styles might emerge, characterized as: (1) moving toward (a style based on affiliation and dependence), (2) moving against (a style based on aggression and assertiveness), and (3) moving away (a style based on detachment and isolation). These styles for coping with basic anxiety could also become neurotic coping strategies when they are exaggerated secondary to the individual experiencing alienation. The articulation of these coping styles had a significant impact on Horney’s clinical work and continues to influence modern psychotherapy.

Arguably, Horney’s most influential contribution was the reinterpretation of penis envy. Instead of emphasizing the envy of the anatomical structure, Horney focused on the issue of repressed womanhood, referring to the fact that society made women feel inferior to men because of their gender. In many respects, this represented the first feminist perspective within personality psychology, and this metaphoric interpretation is still applicable today. Consider some examples. At the highest levels of leadership, such as president of the United States, we have never had a female president, or even a female presidential candidate for either major political party, despite the fact that over half of voting public is female. (The latter is an important point, as it indicates that the driving force behind repressing womanhood is not simply men, but rather culture, societal norms,

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and institutional structures.) Women are less likely to achieve the highest positions in corporations, as they generally top out in middle management, a phenomenon sometimes referred to as the “glass ceiling.”

Perhaps the most well-documented gender difference is with respect to pay. Even though women have been making progress by cutting the wage gap in half from 1980 (when was 64 cents on the dollar) to the current 82 cents on the dollar (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013), the difference is still present. Moreover, the difference continues to exist (i.e., with women earning approximately 82 cents on the dollar) even after accounting for a myriad of possible explanatory factors, such as occupation, age, experience, education, time in workforce, childcare, average hours worked, and college grades (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2008). Thus, repressed womanhood—and the resulting “envy”—may be alive and well!

Horney’s work also garnered considerable attention for her theoretical concept of the “tyranny of the shoulds.” We are constantly confronted by the things we should do (e.g., should be more proactive, we should be better parents, we should be more caring of the poor and sick, etc.). Horney suggests that when faced with these shoulds, there is a divide between our actual selves (who we truly are) and our ideal selves. Horney believed that the exact nature of these shoulds could be used to clarify our character, and in respect, the shoulds are much like Freudian fixations, in that they can highlight the things we are trying most to resolve in our lives. (Note: We will return to the ideal-self discrepancies in more detail in Chapter 9).

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Beyond the Text: Classic Writings

For more detailed information on Freud’s views of the significance of dreams, consider reading Freud’s (1900/1913) text, The Interpretation of Dreams (3rd ed.), translated by A. A. Brill. Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUPSY330.12.2/{pdfs}ch_2_the_interpretation_of_dreams_freud.pdf)

to read it.

Reference: Freud, S. (1913). The interpretation of dreams (3rd ed.). (A. A. Brill, Trans.). New York, NY: The Macmillan Company. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku. ca/Freud/Dreams/index.htm (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/Dreams/index.htm)

2.6 Psychodynamic Methods of Assessment There are a number of assessment techniques that are somewhat unique to the psychodynamic perspective because of their theoretical origins or some of the theoretical assumptions associated with their use. It should also be noted that many of the traditional assessments emerging from the psychodynamic perspective have been characterized “techniques,” rather than formal tests per se. The rationale for labeling them techniques (or methods) is that many lack some of the basic psychometric properties of a test (i.e., adequate reliability and validity). In the absence of these properties, it is certainly reasonable to consider whether the label of “test” is appropriate (see Dahlstrom, 1993). We here briefly review some of those techniques and tasks.

The Technique of Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis was not only forwarded as a theory of the mind and a method for treating emotional and psychological disorders, but it was also used as a method of assessment. Freud used this investigative tool he developed to explore various aspects of mental processes, and he believed it to be especially useful for accessing the unconscious.

In a typical psychoanalytic session, patients would lie on a couch, behind which an analyst, usually a psychiatrist or a psychologist, sits quietly. The rationale is that lying on couch provides an atmosphere that facilitates patients letting their guard down and revealing important information. Ideally, the analyst says little and responds to everything in neutral manner so that the patient’s projection of feelings and thoughts can occur naturally. Psychoanalysis was not to involve the giving of advice or admonishing of the patient.

Freud’s psychoanalysis was based on his belief that individuals in therapy tend to recreate the dynamics of their early relationships. In this process, the analyst takes the place important others in those relationships—an event termed transference. By transference, Freud (1966) meant a transferal of feelings to the doctor. For example, transference can appear as a passionate demand for love or, in more moderate forms, a wish could emerge from a young female patient that her older male therapist receives her as a favorite daughter. Current research in cognitive and relational science suggests that the construct of transference is reasonably robust and appears to be involved in all our relationships (Hassin, Uleman, & Bargh, 2005). (Note: There are parallel terms in other theoretical perspectives that characterize a process very similar to transference. As an illustration, the behavioral perspective uses the term generalization to indicate when learning in one context is generalized to another similar context.)

The Technique of Free Association

Although used within the context of psychoanalysis, the technique of free association can stand on its own as a unique contribution to the process of psychodynamic assessment. Free association is the uncensored expression of whatever thoughts or feelings come to mind, a sort of stream-of-consciousness thinking. The theory is that free association can open a window into the intimate recesses of the patient’s mind because it moves too quickly and too fluently (if someone has learned to do it well) to allow the normal defenses to catch and prevent any undesirable content from emerging. With free association, the therapist attempts to identify repetitive patterns, themes, conflicts, resolutions, and fixations.

The Technique of Dream Analysis

Another of Freud’s pioneering developments involved the analysis of dreams. Freud considered The Interpretation of Dreams (1900/1913) to be the major work of his life. In this book, he presented his ideas about the symbolic meanings of various elements in dreams. Psychoanalysts continue to use dreams as a way to access the patient’s unconscious. As is the case with free association, the rationale is that in the dream one is less likely to censor (defend against) material because it is seen as less threatening. Indeed, much of the dream content is perceived as even more benign when the agent of action in the dream is not the individual, but someone else. Of course, Freud would still interpret the primary agent of action as the dreamer, at least in most circumstances.

Freud speculated that dreams are based on the residual experiences of the day and reveal unconscious, conflict-laden issues, many of which are expressed symbolically. As noted earlier in the text, some psychoanalytic therapists, such as Jung, focused on the manifest content of dreams—their apparent surface meaning. Some psychoanalysts, such as Freud, instead focused on the dream’s latent content—that is, its hidden meanings, as they are being heavily defended. Regardless of the practitioner or their focus, the greatest interest tends to be on recurrent dreams, as they are thought to be especially salient to the dreamer, often alerting the therapist to specific issues of emotional relevance.

The Word Association Task

Carl Jung believed that individuals make associations between ideas, experiences, and affective states, and many of these connections exist in the unconscious. Jung labeled these groupings and connections complexes, and he theorized that they could be uncovered through testing. The word association task was one means by which he sought to do so. The premise of the task is to provide the patient with a series of words, and after each word, the patient says the first word that comes to mind, responding as quickly as possible. The rapid response set is intended to minimize the individual’s level of monitoring, making it more likely that unconscious material will surface. In fact, long delays responding would be interpreted as a defensive posture.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test

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Beyond the Text: Classic Writings

For more detailed information on Jung’s word association task, read Jung’s (1910) article, “The Association Method,” originally published in the American Journal of Psychology. Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUPSY330.12.2/{pdfs}ch_2_the_association_method_jung.pdf)

to read it.

Reference: Jung, C. (1910). The association method. American Journal of Psychology, 31, 219–269. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku. ca/Jung/Association /lecture1.htm (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jung/Association/lecture1.htm)

In 1921, after studying the responses of hundreds of psychiatric patients and control subjects for approximately 10 years, Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach wrote the book Psychodiagnostik (Psychodiagnostics, 1921/1942), introducing the Rorschach inkblot test. In his book, Rorschach characterized the 10 cards he selected and outlined a scoring method. However, Rorschach died within the next year, leaving the Rorschach without an individual to guide its development. Consequently, several different administration and scoring procedures were developed (e.g., Beck, 1944; Beck, Beck, Levitt, & Molish, 1961; Klopfer & Kelley, 1942), and an alternative version of the inkblot even emerged (e.g., The Holtzman Inkblot Test; Holtzman, Thorpe, Swartz, & Herron, 1961). What all of these approaches had in common was the rationale of presenting an ambiguous stimulus, the inkblot, and having the patient provide a response, with the primary interpretation focusing on the response content. As with other projective tests, the assumption is that the respondent would project his or her unconscious conflicts into the inkblot.

Although all versions were often variously referred to as the inkblot test, they were each quite different. As noted in Chapter 1, the lack of standardization for a test seriously undermines its reliability and validity. We will see in Chapter 3 that one of the more recent contributions to the field was a standardization of the Rorschach.

The Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was first developed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan in 1935. Since that time, it has grown in its popularity, and aside from the Rorschach, the TAT is the most widely used projective test (Wood, Nezworski, Lilienfeld, & Garb, 2003). The test contains over 30 picture cards that depict individuals of both genders and of varying ages, as well as more ambiguous figures. Indeed, one picture is blank. Originally, Murray suggested using 20 of the cards, selecting the subset based on age and gender of the patient, and administering them 10 at a time in two separate test sessions. Murray also developed a scoring system for the TAT based on his need-press theory of personality. However, in practice, approximately 10 cards are administered, and there is considerable variability in the specific cards selected, as well as in how they are administered and scored. Indeed, there are even more scoring systems for the TAT relative to the Rorschach, and most are qualitative in nature (see Groth-Marnat, 2009). Thus, although the TAT instrument is widely used, its psychometric properties remain questionable, due to the reliance on the clinician’s judgment and intuition (e.g., Lilienfeld et al., 2000).

Psychoanalytic Model: Quiz

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Chapter Summary This chapter describes Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the most comprehensive personality theory of the 20th century, as well as the ideas of other theorists who shared many of Freud’s basic assumptions. Psychoanalytic theory views the mind as being composed of three major structures: the id (primary drives of sex and aggression), the ego (reality- based level of personality), and the superego (conscience). Freud believed that the primary forces that drive human thought and behavior are sexual (life instinct/libido) and aggressive (death instinct) in nature. Freud divided the mind into three regions: unconscious, preconscious, and conscious, though he believed the unconscious to be the most important of these. He believed that the id reflects our unconscious desires, the superego our unconscious need to be ideal (in morality), and the ego manages the inevitable conflict through the use of defense mechanisms. In Freud’s system, personality development progresses through oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages of psychosexual development. Personality reflects the extent to which the individual accomplishes the tasks related to each stage, as well as the possibility of becoming fixated.

The neo-analytics expanded on Freud’s psychodynamic theory and made many lasting and influential contributions as well, including Carl Jung’s notion of the collective unconscious, Alfred Adler’s inferiority complex, and Karen Horney’s repressed womanhood.

We also reviewed several research studies testing the viability of the unconscious and its influence, a defense mechanism, and some aspects of the psychosexual stages of development. In a broad sense, the reviewed research supports the influence of the unconscious, the defense mechanisms, and even raises the possibility of some unusual dynamics, though it falls well short of confirming psychodynamic theory. The methods used to explore the unconscious were also presented, along with their strengths and weaknesses.

Of course, psychodynamic theory was never universally accepted, and many continue to be staunch critics of both the theory and method. The psychodynamic approach is often characterized as philosophical rather than scientific in nature, and it is sometimes considered pseudoscience. However, despite problems with the methods, many of psychoanalytic concepts have evolved to fit within modern theories (Luborsky & Barrett, 2006) and they continue to stimulate research (Westen, 1998).

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the definition.

anal expulsive (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The personality resulting from a child who deals with issues of control and autonomy in the anal stage by giving up efforts to control situations.

anal retentive (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The personality resulting from a child who deals with issues of control and autonomy in the anal stage by over-controlling situations.

anal stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Lasting until about age 4, a stage of development during which the primary source of pleasure is derived from the voiding and retention of feces.

cognitive unconscious (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A modern day concept that is distinct from Freud’s unconscious and more akin to his concept of the preconscious.

collective unconscious (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Refers to what is essentially a public-access and universal version of the unconscious that contains memory traces common to all humans.

conscious (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The portion of the mind of which we are ordinarily aware; Freud considered this just a small part of each individual’s mind.

death instinct (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Represented by aggression, as one example; sometimes called Thanatos, a minor mythological Greek figure.

defense mechanism

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A mental operation that protects an individual against anxiety that might result when primary process material threatens to break through to the conscious or preconscious mind.

denial (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A defense mechanism that consists of a refusal to accept reality.

ego (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A psychic structure defined by Freud whose primary role is to utilize defenses to meet the demands of the superego, and id, while also balancing the limitations of reality.

Electra complex (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The related experience of the Oedipus complex for the female, who believes she has already been castrated; she blames her mother for the castration, and is drawn to her father because he does possess a penis.

extrovert (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A person who tends to be outgoing and very socially oriented.

fixated (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Being stuck in a certain stage of psychosexual development, unable to progress.

genital phase (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The final stage of psychosexual development, beginning at approximately age 11–14; libidinal energy is now directed towards adult romantic partners of the opposite sex, and the stage culminates in the fullest level of maturity.

id (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A psychic structure defined by Freud that is only driven to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The id is hypothesized to be submerged in the unconscious, so basic drives be satisfied in the unconscious (e.g., fantasy) as well.

inferiority complex (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Individuals’ struggles with feelings of inferiority.

introvert (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A person who tends to be quiet and withdrawn and is more interested in ideas than in people.

latency phase (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A stage of development from about age 6 to 12; it is a time when preoccupation with sexuality lessens.

latent content (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Underlying meaning (typically sexual or aggressive in nature).

libido (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The sexual instinct; referred to as Eros, the Greek god of love and sexual desire.

life instinct

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(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Represented by the libido, the sexual drive.

manifest content (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Apparent, surface meaning.

moral anxiety (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Anxiety that emerges secondary to fears that you are violating internalized moral standards. This is most likely to occur when the superego gains too much control over the ego.

neuroses (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A cluster of symptoms typified by anxiety or indecision and some degree of social maladjustment.

neurotic anxiety (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A kind of “free-floating” tension that is unrelated to any immediate threat.

Oedipus complex (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

When a young boy compete with his father in an attempt to gain the attention of or possess his mother. This leads to fears of being castrated by his father.

oral aggression (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The personality that occurs when weaning has occurred too soon or too abruptly, creating an adult who aggresses against others to meet his or her needs.

oral dependency (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The personality that occurs when an infant has been weaned too late, creating an adult who requires and expects a great deal of attention and support from others.

oral stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The first psychosexual stage of development, lasting until about age 2, in which an infant explores the world largely through his or her mouth.

persona (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

An identity or mask that an individual adopts.

phallic stage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Psychosexual period of development that lasts from about 4 to 8 years of age, during which the primary source of gratification is derived from the genitals.

pleasure principle (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The attempt to avoid pain and maximize pleasure.

preconscious (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The portion of the mind where unconscious material is transformed or “worked over” by the defense mechanisms. Any material that is moving from the unconscious to conscious awareness first must go through the preconscious.

primary process (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

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Thinking derived from inner thoughts and fantasies that are egocentric in nature and lacking in objectivity.

psychoanalytic theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A comprehensive metatheory that deals with the structure and operation of the mind, the formation of personality through stages of psychosexual development, the development of psychopathologies, and psychoanalytic methods for treating psychological disorders.

psychosexual development (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Freud’s theory of human development and personality formation; the sexual instincts to survive and procreate are one of the major forces in this developmental process.

reaction formation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The defense mechanism in which one adopts attitudes and engages in behavior that defends against threatening unconscious impulses that are in direct opposition to the adopted attitudes and behaviors.

realistic anxiety (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A rational response to actual danger, which triggers a flight-fight-or-freeze response.

reality principle (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The recognition that gratification is subject to limitations in reality.

repressed womanhood (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Horney’s reinterpretation of penis envy, in which anatomy is not the cause of women’s dissatisfaction, but instead it is the maltreatment of women in our society.

repression (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A psychological defense mechanism that is used to keep painful experiences and unacceptable impulses out of conscious awareness.

sublimation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The defense mechanism through which the individual finds ways of transforming unacceptable urges into more acceptable behaviors.

superego (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The mental structure that represents the internalization of society’s values and morals, as portrayed by parental figures and social institutions.

topography (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A theoretical conception of how the mind organizes experience and how its various components interrelate.

transference (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

In therapy, it is when the analyst takes the place of important others in early relationships. This can also occur in other areas of life.

unconscious (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The portion of the mind of which we are unaware and the defense mechanisms actively suppress.

wish fulfillment (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Imagery (or hallucinatory experience) that resolves tension.

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Chapter 3 Contemporary Psychodynamic Models of Personality

ViktorCap/iStock/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the basic elements of object-relations theory, and describe the process of forming internalized objects and how they shape personality. Explain how attachment theory expanded our understanding of how personality develops. Discuss the main features of Kohut’s self- psychology and how it adds to our understanding of narcissism. Explain Winnicott’s concept of the good-enough mother and why he thought infants could not be studied by themselves. Explain the purpose of defenses and what makes them functional or pathological. Describe Erickson’s contributions to identity development and personality theory. Explain how normal personality development is undermined by narcissism, according to the contemporary psychodynamic approach. Use Malan’s triangle of conflict to describe how emotion-anxiety-defenses depict intrapsychic processes. Use Malan’s triangle of persons to describe how patterns from our past attachments are reenacted in our current relationships. Know the assessment strategies and tools for contemporary psychodynamic models.

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Introduction We love attention, and it seems that our penchant for self-attention is growing (at least on a societal level). There are now companies you can hire to provide you with the same paparazzi experience lavished upon Hollywood celebrities; you can actually be a “celebrity for a day” and have throngs of media taking photos of you as you go out (http://www.celeb4aday.com/Home.htmlhttp://www.celeb4aday.com/Home.html (http://www.celeb4aday.com/Home.html) (http://www.celeb4aday.com/Home.html) ). The most popular TV shows are reality shows that essentially detail and expose our private lives. There are even companies that will help you develop a more effective personal Facebook page to help boost your personal image and appear more popular to others. Although some self-love and attention seeking can be normal and even healthy, in more extreme manifestations (especially when combined with grandiosity and selfishness) it is neither healthy nor normal and would be labeled as narcissism.

In psychodynamic terms, narcissismnarcissism is a personality disorder characterized by extreme, pathological self-love. In their 2001 book, The Narcissism Epidemic, psychologists Jean M. Twenge and W. Keith Campbell discuss how narcissism in American culture is on the rise, and they suggest that this will result in problems such as aggression, materialism, and shallow values. Even primary research has weighed in on this topic, suggesting that the use of social media can be related to narcissistic tendencies (e.g., Carpenter, 2012) and can have implications for self-worth (Stefanone, Lackaff, & Rosen, 2011). For example, greater narcissism is seen in those who use Facebook the most. Research also suggests that certain behaviors associated with Facebook use are related to narcissism. Consider the following questions:

Do you frequently update your Facebook status?

When you do post, are the posts self-promoting in nature?

Do you spend more than an hour per day on Facebook?

Do you tag yourself in photos?

Do you have a large number of virtual friends relative to non-virtual friends, and are you focused on growing that number?

Do you enhance photos of yourself?

These are just some sample questions, but the more often you answer “yes” to these questions, the more likely you have more narcissistic traits (and lower self- esteem), at least according to some survey research of Facebook users (e.g., Carpenter, 2012).

Of course, we are interested in doing more than just measuring narcissism; we want to know its causes and consequences, and from a clinical standpoint, we want to know if such behavior can be modified (i.e., treated). With over one billion users worldwide, it’s obviously not the case the case that all Facebook users are narcissists (so don’t close your account just yet). However, even individuals with no clinical training appear able to identify the Facebook pages of those higher in narcissism (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008), and it is typically easier to identify narcissistic behavior in others than it is to see it in ourselves. Indeed, our innermost motivations are not always self-apparent (see the study in Section 3.2 in “Development of Narcissism,” which examines narcissism and self-awareness).

In this chapter, we will explore some of the contemporary psychodynamic models that emerged around the second half of the 20th century and continue to evolve today. These theoretical systems advanced new concepts that seemed to more fully characterize the modern human condition. For example, they looked at the influence of sociocultural factors—an area that was largely overlooked by Freud—and how these affect the self.

Pine (1990) suggests that there are four basic orientations in psychoanalytic theory. The first, referred to as drive theory, was forwarded by Freud. Drive theory refers to the instincts that motivate behavior, and as noted in Chapter 2, those were the defined in terms of sex (life) and aggression (death). The three remaining orientations—object relations, self psychology, and ego psychology—are grouped within the contemporary psychodynamic approaches, and are the primary focus of the current chapter, along with Malan’s psychodynamic model.

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Contemporary Models

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Beyond the Text: Classic Writings

In this 1958 paper, “The Nature of Love,” Harry Harlow, who did pioneering work in the field of maternal attachment in nonhuman species, describes maternal “love.” Click here (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUPSY330.12.2/{pdfs}ch_3_the_nature_of_love_harlow.pdf)

to read it.

Reference: Harlow, H. F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psychologist, 13, 673–685. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku. ca/Harlow/love.htm (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Harlow/love.htm)

Joruba/iStock/Thinkstock

Object-relations theory suggests that there is a delicate balance between the mother and child being integrated as one unit (symbiosis) and the developmental process of the infant forming his or her own identity (individuation).

3.1 Early Development of Contemporary Psychodynamic Approaches: Object Relations

An important development in contemporary psychoanalytic theory is object-relations theory—the notion that each of us carries around in our minds certain well-established ideas (referred to as objects), often based on our early relationships with our mothers or fathers. The theory is founded on the notion that important aspects of how we relate to people are programmed into us by our early relationships. Thus, object relations refer to the study of how our minds evolve and grow in the context of our relationships to our early caregivers or primary attachment figures (for an overview, see Williams, 2012).

Objects are our internalized representations of important aspects of these relationships. For example, the mental representation of your mother is the object, and object-relations theory suggests that the way we relate to people reflects these objects. The theory might suggest that a man who is immediately suspicious of all the women he meets may be viewing women through an object that is based on experiences he had with his mother when he was an infant. Perhaps she had to leave him every day for a brief period of time and his (unconscious) perception might be that she intentionally abandoned him (note how reality is less relevant than the individual’s perception of reality; the object relation is a subjective mental representation). The resulting object, based on that early relationship, now guides how he interprets relationships with other women. This example could likewise be extended to paternal objects, as well as any other relationship the infant can represent internally.

Among the many psychoanalysts who contributed to the development of object-relations theory are Otto Rank (who first introduced the concept), Melanie Klein, W. R. D. Fairbairn, Margaret Mahler, Annie Reich (Buckley, 1986), Ivan Boszormenyi-Nagy, Harry Guntrip, and of course, D. W. Winnicott, who played the most significant role in expanding the concept of object relations.

Winnicott was a pediatrician who, after exposure to the work of Melanie Klein and Anna Freud, became a child analyst, although he also worked with adult psychotic patients (D. W. Winnicott, 1988). He believed he could learn much about the psychology of early infancy by studying adult patients who had been made to regress (go back to their childhoods and even infancies).

Object-relations theory was an important departure from Freud’s structural drive theory, in which aggression was assumed to be a normal human instinct. Instead, Winnicott viewed aggression as a result of attachment disruption. Thus, for Freud, the presence of aggression would be normal, whereas for Winnicott aggression would indicate a problem related to attachment. Object-relations theory is based on two main assumptions: (1) the development of self occurs in our relationships with significant others and (2) interactions with attachment figures form internalized templates that serve as working models for future relationships (Benedict & Hastings, 2002).

The object-relations movement was stimulated in part by attachment theorists who were beginning to recognize the importance of relationships in both psychotherapy and individual development. The movement also focused on the processes of symbiosis and individuation and their essential role in identity development (Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975). Symbiosis refers to the mother–infant unit, of

which the child is initially an undifferentiated part; individuation is the process by which the infant becomes increasingly separate and self-sufficient (Note: Although traditional object-relations theorists referred to the mother-infant unit, with this language being echoed in this chapter, a more modern view would refer to the parent–infant unit, as the former may be more tied to the traditional gender roles of the time. In fact, the absence of fathers—paternal separation—can also have a toll on the infant; see, for example, Phares & Compas, 1992). Object-relations theory assumes that separation that is too rapid causes excessive anxiety and can lead to a disruption in the normal separation-individuation phase, which can then result in more longstanding problems in later life. Some research provides general support for this association, as children who have experienced various forms of abuse (e.g., sexual, physical, or emotional) have a heightened risk for a range of psychiatric conditions, including depression and posttraumatic stress (Felitti et al., 1998; Gibb, Chelminski, & Zimmerman, 2007). See “Putting Object-Relations Theory to the Test: Part 1,” in this chapter, for a description of one such study.

In addition to associating early maternal (and in parallel, paternal) separation to problematic behavior later in life, researchers have also tried to associate it with biological consequences, such as hormonal changes and other biological markers associated with a stress response. More recently, the term allostatic load has been introduced into the literature to refer to the biological and physiological consequences that result from chronic stress. Importantly, the body has a physiological threat response that occurs following stress exposure, and although it is adaptive to respond to the acute stressor, the frequent activation of this system can be harmful to organs and tissues. Allostatic load is a cumulative account of these strains on the organs and tissues and can be used to predict later life problems (McEwen & Seeman, 2003). In “Putting Object-Relations Theory to the Test: Part 2,” in this chapter, we will examine whether the early experience of maternal separation can manifest in terms of physiological or biological outcomes.

Primacy of Attachment

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Many of Winnicott’s theoretical constructs developed after World War II and were influenced by his experience with children separated from their parents during the bombing England. He came to believe that the main challenges we deal with have to do with how to maintain balance in our relationships. This requires balancing the polarities involved in, for example, being autonomous but not feeling isolated; cooperating and giving without allowing ourselves to be used; and both receiving and giving, without being engulfed by the needs of others (Cushman, 1992).

Winnicott’s ideas are very similar to Freud’s with respect to his view of the unconscious, the importance of early childhood development, and transference. What is unique to Winnicott is that he did not believe that infants could be viewed outside the context of the maternal–infant dyad. He thought of the beginning of the child’s life as a mother– infant unit, such that the infant exists only in the mother-infant dyad (Rayner, 1991). Accordingly, he believed that the self develops in the context of relationships between child and parent, and that there is a core struggle between the infant’s need for intimacy and the urge for separation. Some of the theoretical concepts to be defined next highlight his emphasis on this maternal–child dyad and any disruptions to this dyad.

Attachment in Nonhuman Species

The importance of early attachment was also being explored in other fields. For example, the animal studies of Harlow (1958; for an overview see Suomi & Leroy, 1982) demonstrated that attachment involved more than simple feeding, as infant monkeys who had been separated from their mothers at birth (referred to as “orphaned monkeys”) were exposed to surrogate mothers, some of which provided warmth and a soft touch (they were made of cloth), while others were physically uncomfortable (made of wire), but they provided food (i.e., a bottle to mimic breast feeding). Harlow found that the cloth surrogates were preferred over the wire feeding surrogates. However, all forms of early separation (i.e., regardless as to whether the orphaned monkeys had no or simply limited opportunities for attachment) resulted in problematic behavior as they aged, including, most notably, aggression (Harlow & Zimmerman, 1959). For a more detailed look at Harlow’s work, see the “Beyond the Text: Classic Writings” box in this section. Subtler forms of separation have also been shown to result in greater timidity and decreased willingness to explore one’s environment (Suomi, 1991).

Similarly, the work of developmental psychologists also informed our understanding of attachment and separation, emphasizing the role of these experiences in personality development (Davidson, Scherer, & Goldsmith, 2003; Nadel & Muir, 2005; Panksepp, 1998). Especially influential was the work of John Bowlby (1988) who studied early attachment in primates and forwarded a theory of attachment, separation, and loss (for a review, see Bretherton, 1992). Bowlby postulated that there are a number of behavioral systems that function to tie the infant to the mother and keep her in close proximity. He describes how attachment develops: “The behavioural systems themselves are believed develop within the infant as a result of his interaction with his environment, of evolutionary adaptedness, and especially of his interaction with the principal figure in that environment, namely his mother” (pp. 179–180). Bowlby believed that clinging and sucking drive attachment. Eating, he explained, is only a minor element in the process of attachment, a finding that was consistent with Harlow’s work, as well (see van der Horst, LeRoy, & van der Veer, 2008).

The aim of attachment behavior, claims Bowlby, is to keep the attachment object close to ensure protection and food, both of which are essential for survival. Proximity- maintaining behavior can be seen when a mother leaves the room and the infant cries. Bowlby also studied the experience of separation and threats of separation, both of which were thought to arouse feelings of anxiety, anger, and even grief. Bowlby suggested that children are protected from overly painful experiences of loss because they experience form of amnesia that serves to defend against the pain/loss, and he suggested that separation does not affect all children in the same way.

Thus, it appears that attachment and the process of separation are both experiences that are somewhat universal, and not limited to humans or just those experiencing problematic functioning.

The Good-Enough Mother

One of Winnicott’s best-known concepts is that of the good-enough mother, which is a very useful concept in understanding the development of healthy and unhealthy selves. This concept refers to the fact that the mother must be healthy and responsive enough to meet the infant’s minute-to-minute needs as they occur (Winnicott, Shepherd, & Davis, 1989). It does not mean that the mother has to be a “perfect” parent to have healthy children, but that it is important to be available at a critical level of parental functioning in order to fulfill the basic needs of uncomplicated developmental progression. Good-enough mothering, then, provides what is necessary for healthy development.

What is important is not a precise measurement of what is good enough, but rather the idea that at a certain level of maternal insufficiency, development will be compromised. For example, imagine a chronically depressed mother who is unable to respond emotionally to her infant. In this case, a sufficiently good attachment or object relationship will not have been established. According to object-relations theory, the infant will then internalize the mother as a distant and nonresponsive object, and this may become a fixed internal representation applied to future relationships. In this case, the mother was not “good enough.” Now take an instance in which a mother suffers from the “baby blues” or even postpartum depression in the weeks following her child’s birth. She isn’t perhaps as responsive as she would like to be to her baby’s needs, but with medication and strong support from family and spouse, she is soon feeling better and able to handle most of the demands her child poses. Ultimately, the object relation her child will form will be a positive one. In this case, then, the mother wasn’t perfect, but she was certainly “good enough” to raise a well-adjusted child.

The Experience of Emptiness

Winnicott’s ideas about object relations enabled him to better understand certain clinical phenomena that were reported by his patients (Winnicott et al., 1989). Among these phenomena was the fact that some patients reported experiencing what they described as deep emptiness. Winnicott conceptualized this, along with most phenomena, as a relationship event. He assumed that the emptiness likely occurred before the person developed language, when there was no response from the primary attachment object/figure. In relation to Freudian development, this would be termed pre-Oedipal. Winnicott believed that it was easier for a patient to remember a traumatic event than to recall a lack responsiveness from a primary attachment figure. Without the benefit of language to form a narrative of what was experienced, the patient is left with deep emptiness.

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What was important in the development of object-relations theory was that it offered a new way of looking at pre-Oedipal insufficiency, or what might now be termed “emotional neglect.” In some ways, it provided a better explanation for clinical phenomena. Michael Balint (1968) also drew attention to the problem of faulty or insufficient parenting—that is, emotional neglect. He believed this led to a chronic sense that there is something wrong or defective about oneself—hence sensations of emptiness. The basic fault, explained Winnicott and other object-relations theorists, has to do with disrupted or unformed infant–caregiver attachment, a fact that underlines the importance of early attachment on the development of the self.

The theoretical formulations and research in this area are tremendously important as they affect an increasing number of individuals. In 2011, the U.S., Department of Health and Human Services found that approximately three-quarters of a million children were reportedly abused or neglected in the United States. Victimization rates are approximately 9 for every thousand children, with the youngest children (less than 3 years of age) having the highest victimization rates. For example, children under 1 year of age had victimization rates of over 21 out of every thousand children. In addition to the incredible toll on the children and their families, the total lifetime economic burden for those cases reported in a one-year period (2008) would be between $124 billion and $585 billion, depending on the type of analysis (Fang, Brown, Florence, & Mercy, 2012). Thus, a better understanding of this problem and the development of intervention strategies is critical.

A logical extension of object-relations theory is that if we can improve the mental and physical health of parents, we may minimize problematic attachment, have more mothers who are “good enough” to meet their children’s needs, and in the long run, avoid the experience of emptiness by those children when they are adults.

Winnicott provides a theoretical connection between the maternal levels of adjustment and level of adjustment of their children. Research on this topic suggests that emotional neglect by mothers in childhood increases the incidence of psychopathology for the children later in life (e.g., Jaite, Schneider, Hilbert, Pfeiffer, Lehmkuhl, & Salbach-Andrae, 2012; Young, Lennie, & Minni, 2011). The literature also suggests that emotional neglect may predict individual differences in physiological responding, such as amygdala reactivity (White et al., 2012) and cerebral infarcts in old age (Wilson et al., 2012). One logical extension of this body of research and the underlying theory is to examine the implications of maternal interventions, especially with high-risk mothers.

A study by Mayers, Hager-Budny, and Buckner (2008) involved an intervention study targeting low-income, teen mothers and their infants enrolled at inner city public high schools. The findings indicate that mothers who had received treatment had improved interactions with their infants in the areas of responsiveness, affective availability, and directiveness. Infants in the treatment group were also found to increase their interest in the mother, respond more positively to physical contact, and show improved emotional tone relative to the control infants. The findings are also consistent with object-relations theory.

Psychoneurosis and Normal Development

Winnicott views normal and abnormal personality development in terms of how defenses are utilized (recall that defenses are means of protecting the individual from conflict related to anxiety). Winnicott suggests that healthy individuals are those who can marshal their defenses to combat internal conflicts that arise. Like Freud, he believed that healthy individuals employ a wide range of defenses and can shift defenses in a flexible manner. In contrast, unhealthy individuals tend to have a more rigid set of defenses (Winnicott et al., 1989). Also, the unhealthy person may resort to massive repression or denial. In contrast, healthy individuals can tolerate the conflicts inherent in life and maintain contact with the self; they are less prone to see others in terms of “good” or “bad” objects, as they are referred to by object-relations theorists.

The work of the object-relations theorists provides important insight into child development and suggests new ways of understanding adult psychopathology and severe personality disorders. Another important contribution relates to the emotions we develop toward our selves, especially our sometimes-extreme self-love, or, as we discussed in the opening to the chapter, narcissism.

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Is this child suffering neurological damage?

3.2 Early Development of Contemporary Psychodynamic Approaches: Self Psychology

One of the central figures in the self-psychology movement was Heinz Kohut, who believed that all children have a need for someone to affirm and admire their achievements, role most commonly filled by the parental (and more typically, maternal) figure. We here present what Kohut believed to be some of the essential components in the development of the self and include a discussion of Erik Erikson’s theory, which emphasizes the development of the self over the lifespan.

Mirroring

The concept of mirroring refers to the act of providing an accurate response to the thoughts, moods, and feelings of another. Although this clearly involves empathy, mirroring implies more than just understanding another person’s emotions. An essential aspect in the development of a healthy self-system includes a relationship with a mirroring figure. Mirroring is the process by which the primary attachment figure provides feedback in the form of reflection and affirmation of the positive qualities that a child demonstrates (for a review, see Ornstein, 1991).

Mirroring is expressed in somewhat different ways, depending on the developmental stage of the individual. In infancy, it is evident in a kind of synchrony of responses between caregiver and infant, calibrated to the infant’s needs, such that when the infant is crying the caregiver might naturally mimic the sad face, or when they are smiling and laughing, the caregiver would likewise smile broadly. Later in life, when language has developed, mirroring might entail reflecting feelings and thoughts that are discerned through active listening—a process that, in a sense, allows one person to locate the essence of the other. For example, when you are talking to a close and trusted friend about your concerns regarding the difficulty of several upcoming exams, they might reflect back to you that you appear to be expressing a more general fear of failure. Assuming this is an accurate read, this could function as a form of mirroring.

Kohut believed that the experience of mirroring is key to development (Kohut & Wolf, 1986). The thesis is that the newborn does not have a self, but has certain prewired adaptations important for biological survival (breathing, sucking, and coughing reflexes, for example), as well as response tendencies and needs critical for psychological survival. Psychological survival, Kohut explains, requires the presence of responsive and empathetic caregivers. In this contemporary psychoanalytic view, relationships with caregivers become internalized, give rise to self-objects, and lead to the development of a mature, normal sense of self. But this does not occur in the absence of an early stage during which mirroring provides an adequate response to the child’s needs. It requires, as well, the gradual replacement of self-objects with a more mature, consistent, self- structure.

In his treatment of patients suffering from narcissistic disorders, Kohut emphasized the importance of empathy on the part of the psychotherapist. He believed that this was a key component of the healing process, but that it was not sufficient in and of itself. In other words, having someone respond to us with empathy will not necessarily change our maladaptive behavior patterns.

Kohut emphasizes the central importance of emotional attunement in healthy personality development. In fact, this type of emotional responsiveness on the part of the parent may be necessary for the development of healthy brain functions. There is mounting evidence to suggest that humiliation may actually damage the brain, negatively influencing brain structure and function (Cozolino, 2006; Siegel, 1999). The explanation is that the experience of humiliation can result in a state of acute stress, leading to the release of the stress hormone cortisol. Excessive production of cortisol over an extended period of time can have negative effects on the body (Dickerson & Kemeny (2004). As a result, early shame experiences can impact brain development (Schore, 1998).

Kohut also introduced the concept of transmuting internalization, which refers to the growth-producing process by which self-object relationships become internalized, leading to a normal notion of self in which the self- concept includes other objects, yet remains distinct from those objects. In Kohut’s language, this results in normal, stable psychic structures. Psychic structures refer to our internal object relations (simply put, our internalized notions about what relationships with others are or should be). The current terms schema and template are used interchangeably with psychic structure.

The process of transmuting internalization involves three steps:

1. The psychic structure is receptive to absorb introjects (literally, internalizations of others’ ideas, or the turning of feelings for others toward oneself).

2. These internalizations are, to some extent, frustrating: They don’t satisfy all the infant’s needs, and this leads to a sense of loss in the infant. This frustration and mourning considered essential for the development of normal personality structure as it leads the infant to replace some of the functions of the lost object. Thus, according to Kohut, minor parental absences, failures, and disappointments all play a fundamental role in the infant’s development of self.

3. Finally, minor losses and parental absences prevent total identification with the object (the parent), allowing for the development of a differentiated self.

What Kohut is saying, basically, is that a child will gradually take in the features of a parent. At first, the entire parental matrix will be taken in either as “good” or “bad,” and then slowly, over time, the good and bad parts will be integrated into a coherent picture of the parent. Through this process, Kohut believes children develop their internal structure. For some, especially those with delayed emotional development or those with some personality disorders (discussed in Chapter 10), this process is delayed well into

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adulthood or may never occur.

Identity Development

Kohut believed that the mirroring process is, then, the first step in the long journey of identity formation. Once the infant begins to develop an internal structure, that structure will be challenged and revised continually according to what the child, and then the adult, experiences across the lifespan. This global perspective on self psychology brings us to the work of Erik Erikson.

Erik Erikson as an educator, intellectual, and clinician who had a vast influence on both theoretical and practical developments in contemporary psychoanalysis (E. H. Erikson, 1970). Erikson was analyzed and mentored by Anna Freud, who influenced his decision to become a lay analyst. Although he never received a doctoral degree in medicine or psychology, he held teaching positions at prestigious universities, including Harvard, and made a major contribution to psychoanalysis in 1950 with the publication of his book, Childhood and Society.

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development rests on the assumption that cultural forces are a vital aspect of an individual’s growth and development. He postulated the epigenetic principle—the idea that how the biological origins of behavior manifest in a particular individual is influenced by the available environmental factors. Erikson states that individuals develop through a series of eight stages, each of which is defined by key developmental tasks that need to be mastered before proceeding to the next stage. For example, Erikson believed that if the infant was unable to successfully negotiate the early stage focusing on the discernment of when to trust others and when to be more cautious (i.e., trust vs. mistrust), then he or she would likely struggle with properly negotiating later stages, such as finding a lifelong romantic partner (i.e., intimacy vs. isolation). Importantly, he viewed personality development as occurring over the entire lifespan, and each stage as offering a different set of challenges. The stages of life, as Erikson (1959) outlined them, along with the corresponding Freudian psychosexual stages, are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Erikson’s eight stages of personality development and the corresponding Freudian psychosexual stages

Erikson Freud

Infancy Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame/doubt

Oral stage Anal stage

Childhood Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority

Phallic stage Latency stage

Adolescence Identity versus confusion Early genital

Adulthood Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Ego integrity versus despair

Later genital

According to Erikson, success at one stage of development and the manner in which the life crises are resolved will necessarily affect the following stages, as the number of positive versus negative outcomes at each stage will determine the long-term impact of experiences. In each stage are embedded developmental challenges, such as separating from parents, establishing a career path, leaving home, and selecting a mate. Progression to the next stage requires overcoming the challenges of the preceding stage, and there some support for the contention that successfully negotiating earlier stages leaves one better able to manage stressful adjustments in the future (e.g., Marcia, 1966). It should be noted that there have been some attempts to both realign and even expand Erikson’s basic stages, especially the stages of later life (e.g., Erikson & Erikson, 1997). However, the original eight-stage theory remains as the most commonly referenced and widely used model.

The Significance of Identity and Identity Crisis

Identity is a central concept in Erikson’s (1968) theory. It relates to individuals’ sense of self, of who they are and who they can be. Erikson believed that identity is characterized by a sense of continuity and integrity, a notion that one’s meaning as an individual is real, identifiable, and recognizable by significant others. Erikson is also the one who coined the term “identity crisis.”

Erikson believed that the timing of the adolescent identity crisis is driven by a number of dramatic changes occurring at this stage in life, including sexual and physical maturation, and becoming more aware of how others view us. As a result, our sense of who we are is challenged. Erikson believed that the ease with which one navigates this identity crisis is driven in large part by the negotiation of the earlier stages. Thus, if one successfully masters the discernment of when and whom to trust and develops a sufficient degree of autonomy and mastery, then they should have a more coherent sense of self.

It appears that Erikson’s stages are strongly influenced by the social-developmental opportunities and expectations in our culture. For example, the age at which one deals with intimacy versus isolation has less to do with some invariant developmental milestone, and more to do with social and cultural norms of when people in a given culture or society typically begin to date or get married. For example, consider the average age at which people first marry, which tends to be at a later age in societies where a larger number of individuals attend college (as with most first-world countries). In contrast, in societies where higher education is a rare occurrence, then the bulk of the population is likely to deal with intimacy and isolation (at least when defined by marriage) at a much earlier age (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2000).

Perhaps the most noteworthy of Erikson’s contributions was the suggestion that identity development extends well into adulthood (notice that three of Erikson’s stages are

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Glen Wilson/©Warner Bros./Courtesy Everett Collection

Is this man a narcissist? Kohut argues that for narcissists, sexual gratification and intimacy comes from focusing attention on oneself versus someone else.

hypothesized to occur post-adolescence, whereas Freud had only one stage during this same period). For example, Erikson noted that a central task of midlife is that of generativity versus stagnation, where individuals are focused on assessing their contributions to, and guidance of, future generations. Erikson argued that engaging in socially valued work is a direct expression of generativity. He argued that generativity could also be achieved through one’s family; however, having children in and of itself does not necessarily result in generativity. Thus, individuals who believe they have productively contributed to the next generation will emerge favorably from this stage, whereas a person who has led a more self-centered life will be unsatisfied with their lack of contributions and experience stagnation.

The final stage of integrity versus despair also involves a life review with a focus on one’s life achievements. If the life review results in identifying many disappointments and unachieved goals, then the consequence is depression. Interestingly, a large epidemiological study (Mirowsky & Ross, 1992) indicates that depression reaches its peak levels in older adults (aged 80 and up), and the National Institute of Mental Health reports that suicide rates among those aged 80–84 is twice that of the general population (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.). Although the higher rates of depression and suicide are likely influenced by factors such as declining health, losses (e.g., death of spouse), and economic declines, Erikson might argue that this finding reflects a negative outcome in the integrity versus stagnation stage.

Regrets may be an inevitable part of life, but how we manage our regrets can determine the extent to which they influence us negatively (Wrosch, Bauer, & Scheier, 2005). Erikson associated the last stage of his theory with a life review, in which the individual might compare unachieved goals with achieved goals to assess integrity versus despair. One approach to conceptualizing this late life review is to consider regrets. Research suggests that how we think about our regrets can influence how available they are to us (i.e., how easily they are remembered) and the emotional pain associated with regrets (Gilovich & Medvec, 1995; Gilovich, Medvec, & Kahneman, 1998; Gilovich, Wang, Regan, & Nishina, 2003).

A study examining 155 older community college students (older community college students were explicitly targeted because they were reporting significant life changes, such as divorce, job change, or return to school) used regret and goal ratings to predict psychological well-being (Lecci, Okun, & Karoly, 1994). The most common regret reported was educational/academic in nature (nominated by approximately a third of the sample), and this was likely influenced by the fact that the data were collected in an academic environment. The other two most common categories were occupational regrets and leisure (i.e., hobby-related) regrets. The relative frequencies of these content categories were the same regardless of the age of the respondents. The number of listed regrets did relate positively to depression scores for all participants, but they only related to life satisfaction for the oldest subjects. That is, for older individuals, the more regrets they had, the lower their life satisfaction. Part of this can be explained by the fact that as we age, we have fewer opportunities to make amends for any regrets (i.e., they are more permanent), and thus they come with a higher cost.

These findings suggest that regrets in later life can be predictive of psychological well-being (as per Erikson’s theory). However, it is not how many regrets we have, but rather how we think about them and how they relate to our future goals that is more influential to our level of adjustment (see Wrosch et al., 2005). Importantly, this better reflects the individual difference approach adopted in personality, as it highlights the importance of how we interpret these events rather than their mere occurrence (see also Chapter 6 for discussion of the cognitive approach and idiosyncratic interpretations of events).

In the previous sections, we have discussed core aspects of human development, such as mirroring and identity formation. However, some individuals experience less adaptive outcomes, whether that be due to the absence of effective mirroring, difficulties negotiating some of Erikson’s theoretical stages, or some other traumas in early identity formation. The next section discusses one area that has received considerable theoretical and research attention.

Development of Narcissism

Kohut developed a model similar to Winnicott’s, in some respects, especially in its emphasis on the importance of early relationships in the development of self and personality. Kohut’s primary focus was on the development of the self from the fragile and fragmented state of the infant to the stable and cohesive adult self-structure. He did not agree with the classical psychoanalytic view that considered intrapsychic conflicts as the central cause of psychopathology. Instead, Kohut believed that most psychopathology resulted from deficiencies in the structure of the self (Millon & Davis, 1996b, p. 52). Kohut also rejected Freud’s conceptualization of psychosexual development as being the formative factor in personality development. Instead, he believed that the drive toward maturation was fueled by an innate potential that he called narcissism.

Like Winnicott, he also believed that attachment to the primary caretaker is crucial for this aspect of development. Kohut’s formulation, following Freud’s early conceptualization, described narcissism as the investment of libidinal energy into the self. In pathological states, too much libidinal energy is invested, resulting in an extreme form of self-love, which limits the possibility of establishing other loving relationships. He explains that the child’s early experience is part of the mother–infant dyad, undifferentiated from it. It serves as a precursor to the “I-you” differentiation that occurs in normal development, but does not occur in pathological forms of narcissism (Kohut, 1986). When there is an appropriately responsive caregiver, the self develops optimally, but when there is a lack of empathic attunement, which is the responsiveness of an attentive and loving caregiver, the emerging self falters.

Kohut believed that exhibitionism, which is the act or practice of deliberately behaving so as to attract attention, was the narcissistic manifestation of all drives. That’s because, in the narcissistic individual, the drives for intimacy and sexual gratification are directed toward the self instead of toward others. The primary goal that drives exhibitionism is that of re-creating the wished-for parental response. Children’s normal exhibitionism is motivated by their need to obtain parental approval. As development proceeds, this normal need is increasingly frustrated, eventually leading to more mature and socially acceptable behaviors. Yet, the older child still looks for the mother’s smile, her approval, to maintain the drive toward mastery and more mature functioning. Kohut (1971) believed that a healthy individual is autonomous and possesses high self-esteem and self-confidence. In contrast, individuals suffering from narcissism have fluctuations in self-esteem, often triggered by perceived slights or disapproval. Thus, to maintain consistently high evaluations of self, they need constant external validation (e.g., praise from others).

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Among the hallmark signs of narcissism is that the individual has a self-centered viewpoint, which can undermine their ability to understand and appreciate the views of others. Indeed, past research suggests that narcissists often see themselves quite positively (Clifton, Turkheimer, & Oltmanns, 2004). This can be described as a narcissistic ignorance view (i.e., they do not know the views of others). Alternatively, it is possible that narcissistic individuals are aware that those that know them well hold negative views, and as result, they would see new acquaintances as having a (relatively) more favorable view of them compared to people who know them well. This can be described as a narcissistic awareness view.

A study by Carlson, Vazire, and Oltmanns (2011) was designed to compare the narcissistic awareness and ignorance views by comparing how narcissists are seen by others (referred to as others’ perception), to how they view themselves (self-perceptions), to how they believe they are viewed by others (meta-perceptions)—both those who know them well and new acquaintances. Unacquainted participants came to the lab in pairs and completed a self-perception measure and a standardized narcissism measure: the 16- item Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Ames, Rose, & Anderson, 2006), which measures traits such as exhibiting a grandiose sense of self, feelings of entitlement, lack of empathy for others, and an exploitative interpersonal style. Next, participants were introduced and instructed to get to know each other by talking for five minutes. Participants were then taken back to their separate rooms where they provided perceptions of their partner’s personality (i.e., other-perceptions) and perceptions about how they thought their partner perceived their personality (i.e., meta-perceptions). Individuals also identified three people who knew them well and they were contacted via email for personality ratings (there was a 67.7% response rate from these nominated individuals, who were mostly friends and parents).

Self-perceptions, meta-perceptions, and others’ perceptions were all assessed with the same questionnaire with only a minor change in instructions, and all items were rated on 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Some key findings indicate that narcissism was associated with holding positive self-perceptions and with being seen more positively by new acquaintances than by well-acquainted others. Moreover, narcissists’ meta-perceptions for positive traits appeared to be less positive than their self-perceptions of those traits. A second study by Carlson and colleagues (Carlson et al., 2011) that was longitudinal in nature also indicated that the ratings changed, such that narcissists had some awareness that their reputation was deteriorating over time.

Understanding whether narcissists have some self-awareness is important from a practical standpoint, as poor self-insight makes it less likely that these individuals would be motivated to seek treatment or would try to effect any change, simply because they would be unaware of the need for any change. The current research suggests that they do possess some insight, though they are biased toward assuming that others’ view them somewhat favorably.

Core Effects of Narcissism: Shame and Rage

Kohut’s formulation of narcissism emphasized the emotions of shame and rage. These emotions, he explains, result from disequilibrium of the intrapsychic system. Shame arises when the parental figures—self-objects—do not provide the needed mirroring, admiration, and approval of the emergent self of the child. Mirroring, as we saw, is the ability to respond to the affective state of another person. Through mirroring, children learn that they are distinct from the parental figure. This allows them to form healthy relationships. Rage, the other core emotion in narcissism, is a reaction to a range of possible frustrations of the infant’s narcissistic tendencies. It arises from an unresolved psychic injury related to the infant’s early narcissism. For example, if mothers are continually unresponsive to their children’s need for admiration, the result may be rage and developmental fixation. This fixation can last into adulthood, where what had been an age- and phase-appropriate response—frustration and anger in response to perceived injury—is no longer appropriate. Kohut refers to this as narcissistic rage and likens it to the fight component of the flight-or-fight response. The importance of rage and shame within the construct of narcissism is reflected by the fact that a recently developed measure of narcissism (e.g., the Pathological Narcissism Inventory; Pincus et al., 2009) incorporates these as two central components.

Most of us have experienced episodes of severe anger or rage when we are injured or we are prevented from reaching our goals. These can sometimes be appropriate responses. But narcissistic rage and anger are different. According to Kohut, narcissistic rage results from injuries to a person’s self-concept or sense of esteem. As an illustration: When wife did not serve dinner at precisely 5:30 pm, a narcissistic male became enraged and smashed his plate of food on the floor—and then expected his wife to clean it up. He experienced his wife’s failure to comply with his demands as a major injury and responded with uncontrolled narcissistic rage.

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3.3 Early Development of Contemporary Psychodynamic Approaches: Ego Psychology

Heinz Hartmann who trained as a physician and emigrated from Austria before World War II, elaborated another important development in contemporary psychodynamic theory: ego psychology (1939/1958, 1964). As the label implies, Hartmann attributed greater significance to the ego than Freud did.

The ego, as defined by Freud, is the level of personality that mediates between the instinctual forces of the id and the value system and conscience of the superego. Hartmann was concerned with presenting a conceptualization that would describe not only pathology but also healthy personality functioning. His was one of the earliest calls for a psychology of healthy functioning as opposed to a psychology preoccupied with neurotic adjustment. (This trend has continued with the current positive psychology movement.) The traditional view had long been that the main criterion of mental health is freedom from the symptoms of abnormality. Hartmann (1964) objected to this view.

Modes of Normal Functioning

Normal functioning, as opposed to neuroses, Hartmann (1939/1958) explained, is a function of adaptation. And normal, healthy adaptation is largely a function of the ego. After all, the ego is concerned with self-preservation. In other words, Hartmann was suggesting that the ego is that part of our internal operating system that adapts to the demands the world. It learns to adapt more effectively as we grow and develop. In a sense, this is an example of the gradual evolution of more mature ways of functioning and solving problems. Clearly, an adaptive solution at one phase in development might not be adaptive later, as environmental demands and social circumstances change. For example, crying may be a very effective solution for a frustrated 3-year-old whose parent will give her the coveted toy, but it is a far less adaptive solution for the college student who covets a new sports car or higher grades (though this hasn’t stopped some from trying this method).

Ego functions are essentially what we would describe as coping mechanisms, explained in terms of what Hartmann called ego adaptive capacity. Someone with good ego functions (high ego adaptive capacity) is able to maintain a balance between demands of the outer world and internal needs and desires. Good ego functions include the capacity to tolerate frustration, disappointment, and other forms of stress. According to Hartmann (1939/1958), those with strong ego adaptive capacity make limited use of defenses; they have a high capacity to tolerate anxiety without calling on defense mechanisms. This is in marked contrast to Freud, who viewed the utilization of a wide range of defenses as a sign of being adaptive.

Interpersonal Functioning

Harry Stack Sullivan, often considered the founder of ego psychology, emphasized the role of interpersonal factors in ego development. That is, the ego’s primary role is to interpret and adapt to social demands, expectations, and roles. In fact, his theory was known as the Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, and he launched a movement that later became known as Sullivan’s school of interpersonal relations (Rioch, 1985).

Like Erikson, Sullivan believed that personality changed throughout our lives, but the impetus for that change was seen as changing and new relationships with others. Because the primacy of the social self in ego development is defined in terms of the presence of others, Sullivan believed that we adopted new ego identities to meet the demands of different social situations. Thus, in coming to college, a student will establish a new identity for that set of relationships. However, when returning home to be with family and friends, those individuals will engender the emergence of the identity they knew. In this respect, there is no single or fixed personality. (Consider the last time you ran into friends from high school. Did an old self emerge that was associated with those friends?)

Sullivan believed that interpersonal interactions drive the development of what he termed personifications of the self and others. Sullivan defined personifications as mental images (similar to the idea of object relations) that allow us to better understand ourselves and our world. Sullivan identified three personifications: (1) the bad-me (the aspects ourselves that are negative and hidden), (2) the good-me (the aspects of our self that we like and openly share with others), and (3) the not-me (everything we consider not part of ourselves, in theory because it would induce too much anxiety to do so). Thus, focusing on the bad-me or the not-me is one way to increase anxiety.

Interestingly, Sullivan himself published very little theoretical or empirical work, but his ideas spurred the work of others.

Making Sense of the World and Using Defenses

Jane Loevinger, whose work was based largely on that of Sullivan, believed that the primary function of the ego is to help make sense of our world and everything we experience (Loevinger, 1976, 1987). As was the case with Sullivan, the bulk of the ego’s work is focused on object relations (i.e., it is grounded in interpersonal experiences). The ego helps makes sense of early relationships and both attachment and separation from one’s primary caregiver. The ego then attempts to make sense of interdependence and autonomy with respect to others and even society as a whole (note the overlap with many of the developmental themes outlined by Erikson and other theorists). This can also include gaining an understanding of societal rules, as these rules typically address issues directly related to social interdependence. Thus, as we age, the ego also increases in complexity and in its ability to make sense of an increasingly complex world.

Even the ego psychologists spoke at length about defenses, and for the most part, they utilized the same terms and definitions as those forwarded by Freud. Indeed, Loevinger (1976) suggested that a primary function of the ego in any interpersonal interaction is to control impulses, and the ego mechanisms of defense were one of the primary ways of achieving this. Loevinger and more recent interpretations by Cramer (1987) suggest that as part of normal ego development, there is a sequencing in the emergence of defenses. Denial is seen as an immature defense that emerges early in the developmental sequence (i.e., childhood), and projection, which is also an immature defense, is seen to be prevalent in adolescence. In an interesting study by Cramer (1999), the author sought to examine a group of subjects in their early 20s to determine if their use of defenses, such

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as denial and projection (both reflecting defenses that would indicate developmental immaturity), could be predicted. Cramer hypothesized that these lower-level defenses would be associated with lower intellectual functioning (IQ) and with weak impulse control.

The participants in the study were taken from a longitudinal project that began tracking the participants at age 3. The current study examined 89 individuals (43 males and 46 females), who were aged 23 at the time of data collection.

Ego development was assessed using two methods, including the TAT, which is discussed in Chapter 2 and in this chapter. Defense mechanism use was assessed by trained coders using six of the TAT picture cards. As a brief illustration, denial was coded if the respondent omitted major characters or objects or denied reality. Projection was coded respondents included magical thinking in their stories, or if they attributed hostility to other characters. Intelligence was assessed with a standardized measure during one of the previous waves of evaluation in the longitudinal study.

Results indicated that although IQ and defense mechanism use was unrelated, both variables predicted ego development. Importantly, the relation between the use of defenses and ego level varied as a function of IQ. When IQ was lower, use of denial and projection was associated with higher ego development. However, when IQ was lower, use of denial was associated with lower ego development.

Cramer (1999) concludes that ego development is influenced by both intelligence and defense mechanism use but in different ways. Intelligence resulted in a simple linear association, such that the higher intelligence the higher the ego development. However, the use of defenses appears to be more complex, with ego development characterized by lower impulse control resulting in greater use of defenses. This highlights the issue of developmentally appropriate defense use. In other words, while a young child who uses denial may be developing normally, it is considerably more problematic if denial is used extensively by an adult.

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3.4 Malan’s Psychodynamic Model of Integrative Theory Contemporary psychodynamic models of personality tend to be increasingly integrative in that they have assimilated many constructs from earlier theories. Psychoanalytic theorists were the first to develop a theory of personality, and contemporary formulations remain strongly rooted in psychodynamic concepts. Psychodynamic conceptualizations of personality have emerged primarily from the study and treatment of psychopathological adaptations and personality disorders. Therefore, the main body of literature emphasizes personality disorders and treatment approaches (Clarkin & Lezenweger, 2004). However, there are important constructs that can be used to organize and depict how normal personality functions. This section describes some of those, along with the theoreticians who developed them. David Malan (1979), a pioneering psychiatrist, theorist, and researcher, has contributed important constructs for understanding personality and the contemporary psychodynamic treatment model. He developed two triangular formulations to explain the psychodynamic process. He calls them the triangle of conflict and the triangle of persons.

Malan’s Triangle of Conflict

Malan’s triangle of conflict was borrowed from Ezriel (1952). It is used to show the processes that occur in the mind and body. This triangle depicts the interplay among underlying emotions such as anxiety (affective domain system) and the defensive operations that serve to control emotions and lessen anxiety. Malan (1979) combined these two representations and applied them to a form of clinical treatment called short-term dynamic psychotherapy (STDP). The triangles are useful for depicting the structure and process of many of the component systems that make up personality. They describe the interrelationship between our intrapsychic and interpersonal functions. In other words, they show how our internal schema are expressed in our relationships with others, and the manner in which internal schema are expressed forms the basis of our personality (Magnavita, 1997; McCullough Vaillant, 1997).

The triangle of conflict represents the intrapsychic functions (or mental processes) related mainly to affect-regulation (Westen & Blagov, 2007). The three corners of the triangle are feelings in the lower corner, anxiety in the upper-right corner, and defense in the upper-left corner. These three mental processes are hypothesized to be in constant motion within all of us (see Figure 3.1). The triangle of conflict is essentially a self-regulating feedback system (a cybernetic model). For example, an individual who has experienced traumatic episode resulting in painful feelings and anxiety will tend to re-experience this affective complex in similar situations. Thus, experiences of physical or sexual abuse, typically associated with a range of emotions such as anger, fear, shame, and sadness, might result in the same emotions when the individual is confronted with stimuli that are reminiscent of the abuse. For example, when an adult male who was physically abused as a child sees another adult acting in a domineering manner with a child, it may trigger the same emotions he experienced as a child. (Note: These conceptualizations will later be labeled generalization in the behavioral perspective; see Chapter 5). As this complex of feelings threatens to surface into conscious awareness in a painful and possibly disorganizing manner, anxiety is triggered; the anxiety signals the intrapsychic system to call forth defenses. The theory assumes that defenses keep thoughts, images, and intolerable impulses out of consciousness awareness.

Figure 3.1: Malan’s triangle of conflict The figure depicts the interplay among the underlying emotion of anxiety (affective domain system), and the defensive operations that serve to control emotions and in turn lessen anxiety.

Triangle of Conflict, from Jeffrey Magnavita, Theories of Personality: Contemporary Approaches to the Science of Personality, John Wiley & Sons, 2002, Fig. 6.3, p. 216. © Jeffrey Magnavita.

In this representation, we can place all the defense mechanisms discussed in Chapter 2 in the upper left corner of the triangle. In this way, we can begin to illustrate both the individuality we see in personality and some of the personality types that various theoreticians and researchers have documented. The array of defenses allows for infinite variation, accounting for individual differences. It is hypothesized that certain types of personality use certain constellations or clusters of defenses (Magnavita, 1997). For example, individuals described as having obsessive personality traits or, if extreme, an obsessive-compulsive personality disorder will generally use defenses such as intellectualization, isolation of affect, rumination, repression, and compulsiveness. Of course, there will be great variation in the specific combination of defenses that individuals will employ, and this can account for differences at a micro level of analysis. At the same time, at the macro level, the similarities will make overall obsessive-compulsive traits recognizable.

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DefenseDefense Categorization Categorization

Phoebe Cramer (1998) offers a more contemporary working definition of a defense mechanism:

The term “defense mechanism” refers to a mental operation that occurs outside of awareness. The function of the defense mechanism is to protect the individual from experiencing excessive anxiety. According to the older, classical psychoanalytic theory, such anxiety would occur if the individual became aware of unacceptable thoughts, impulses, or wishes. In contemporary thinking about defenses, an additional function is seen to be the protection of the self—or self- esteem and, in more extreme cases, protection of the self. (p. 885)

This definition combines elements of both classical and contemporary psychodynamic thinking. Anxiety is seen as emerging from threats of perceived danger from the external world. It can also result from internal threats—conflicts deriving from our fear of expressing our impulses. In addition, anxiety can be generated by a challenge to our internal schema or object relations. This definition is in keeping with recent research characterized as Terror Management Theory (TMT), which suggests that anxiety and other negative reactions emerge as a means of preserving one’s own worldview and meaning of reality (e.g., Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986; Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Greenberg, 2002; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991a). (Recall how the ego was defined as playing a significant role in understanding the world.) Interestingly, TMT research has also identified self-esteem as a way to reduce anxiety (Greenberg, Simon, Pyszczynski, Solomon, & Chatel, 1992), and this too would be consistent with the discussed theories on ego development.

Various authors have placed the defense mechanisms into categories (Meissner, 1981; Perry, 1992; Vaillant, 1992). Doing so gives us another way to understand and measure variability in personality. Most authors place defenses along a continuum, from psychotic, to immature, to neurotic, to mature (see Figure 3.2). These categories of defenses are not precisely defined, and there is some overlap among them. However, the general schema does have some empirical validation (Vaillant, 1992) and can be useful for organizational purposes. Figure 3.2 represents a compilation of defenses from various sources (Magnavita, 1997).

Figure 3.2: Categories of defenses A compilation of a number of defenses and their general organization.

Adapted from Magnavita, J. J. (1997). Restructuring personality disorders: A short-term dynamic approach. New York: Guilford Press.

Anxiety:Anxiety: A A Common Common Aspect Aspect of of Human Human Existence Existence

Defenses are one corner of the triangle; anxiety is another. In psychoanalytic theory, anxiety arises from unacceptable id impulses that would present a serious threat to the superego if they were to break through to consciousness. In contemporary psychodynamic theory, anxiety can result from conflict and associated emotions that are not experienced fully at the conscious level. The individual may fear experiencing certain emotions that could cause anxiety (McCullough, 2003). Each of us has a different level emotional tolerance, depending on our ego adaptive capacity.

Anxiety is a universal emotion that is essential for our adaptation. When you walk through a dangerous neighborhood at night, you may experience fear because of potential danger. Simply thinking about walking in that neighborhood may arouse the related emotion, anxiety. You may also experience anxiety when public speaking, even though there is no threat of harm. Rather, there is a psychological threat to the self, which could result in a narcissistic injury—”I am not good enough” might be the associated internal negative belief. Most theorists assume that there is a clear connection between the original manifestations of fear, which are more directly linked to situations where there is mortal danger, to the psychological sense of fear that develops later in life, which is focused on an injury to the psychological self, broadly defined.

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Anxiety includes both a subjective sense of distress and physiological activation, reflected in changes such as increased heart rate, palpitations, sweating, need to urinate, sweaty palms, dry mouth, muscle tension, nausea, tightness in the chest, and restlessness (autonomic arousal). Most of us can recognize when we are in a state of increased anxiety; we are familiar with our own constellation of physiological reactions. For many people, imagining being asked to stand up in front of a class to give an extemporaneous talk is sufficient to bring about autonomic arousal associated with anxiety.

Various types of anxiety have been described in psychodynamic literature. They include (1) separation anxiety—fear relating to loss of a significant other; (2) castration anxiety —fear of damage to the body, especially to the genitals; (3) moral anxiety—fear of violating one’s values; (4) annihilation anxiety—fear of being destroyed or overwhelmed; fragmentation anxiety—fear of disintegration of the self; and (6) persecutory anxiety—irrational fear of harm to loved ones (PDM Task Force, 2006). Anxiety includes an emotional and physiological experience as well as a cognitive component. Over the course of development, anxiety tends to shift from being mostly a somatic (bodily) experience (e.g., physical symptoms, such as sweating, tingling, heart palpitations, etc.) to a psychic or mental phenomenon (e.g., thoughts of worry, low sense of control over events, etc.).

Feelings/Affect/Emotions:Feelings/Affect/Emotions: Our Our Interpersonal Interpersonal Survival Survival System System

Anxiety and defenses are two of the corners of the triangle of conflict; the third relates to feelings (affect or emotion). Researchers in affective science have identified six probable basic emotions (anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness/joy, and surprise) and three secondary or social emotions (guilt, shame, and pride) (Davidson et al., 2003; Maine & Bonanno, 2001). In keeping with the contemporary psychoanalytic models, neuroscientific findings support the belief that both feelings and cognitions can exist at the unconscious level (Anderson, Reznik, & Glassman, 2005; Lane & Nadel, 2000).

The purpose of emotions is to facilitate and guide our responses to environmental circumstances, and psychopathology reflects a deficit in emotional processing (Newman & Lorenz, 2003). Feelings orient us to what needs to be attended to in our life and give meaning and importance to various activities necessary for survival and growth. In this sense, they are our personal navigational system. When individuals are out of contact with their feelings, we see them as emotionally flat or wooden. Like Sheldon, the character from the television series The Big Bang Theory, who seems to only process his experiences at an intellectual level, these people miss much of the meaning of social interactions. Instead, emotions should be experienced as bodily reactions and interpreted through internal cognitive appraisal. They are communicated to others through facial expression (Ekman & Rosenberg, 2005), gestures, and vocal expression (Davidson, et al. 2003).

The affective system and how it is managed by defenses is an important component system of personality. All of us can be placed on an emotional continuum with regard to how well our emotional system functions. We might describe certain people as being emotionally reactive, suggesting that they have trouble regulating their emotional system. In fact, extreme emotional dysregulation is a central feature of some forms of severe personality disorders. Other people appear emotionless and in fact are emotionally inexpressive. And most display emotional reactions that we consider normal for their social and cultural circumstances.

Malan’s Triangle of Persons: The Interpersonal Matrix

Basing his work on what Karl Menninger (1958) had earlier presented as the triangle of insight, Malan renamed it the triangle of persons to better describe the hypothesized interpersonal or dyadic nature of these processes. The model shows how early attachment relationships are encoded (represented by means of internal schema), and how past relationships (early attachment or object relationships), current relationships (relationships in our current life), and the therapeutic relationship (transference that occurs in the therapeutic process) parallel one another in terms of core relational themes.

The triangle of persons represents interpersonal relationships. At the lower corner of the triangle are past relationships, as seen from the adult’s vantage point. This represents core relational experiences, starting with early attachments that shape the individual’s ideas about trust, intimacy, and attachment to others. If an individual has positive, growth- promoting attachments, the emotional network will develop without the need for excessive or restrictive defensive functioning. Malan’s theory suggests that if the early relational system is disturbed, defenses will be developed in an attempt to protect the self in the most adaptive way possible.

Figure 3.3: Personality as expressed in the triangle of persons Malan proposed that personality is created, maintained, and expressed in the context of our mental representations of interpersonal experiences.

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Cultural Influences on Development

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. Think about some of the “social constructs” that are seen in our culture. Can you think of at least one example from another culture?

2. How do the social scripts differ for American versus Japanese mothers when interacting with their children?

From Jeffrey Magnavita, Theories of Personality: Contemporary Approaches to the Science of Personality, John Wiley & Sons, 2002, Fig. 6.3, p. 216. © Jeffrey Magnavita.

The theory suggests that as individuals mature, the early components of the relational matrix in which they were immersed will be retained, internalized, and re-created in relationships with others (see Figure 3.3). These then become characteristic traits and relational patterns that mark part of our personality. Psychodynamic therapists also note that these patterns of interpersonal relationships are brought to the therapeutic relationship and become part of the therapist–patient dynamic (Luborsky & Crits-Christoph, 1997).

Using the Triangles to Explain Personality Development and Organization

Personality is shaped by our positive and negative experiences in the interpersonal domain (depicted by the triangle of persons). These interpersonal experiences, interacting with temperament dispositions, lead to the building of an intrapsychic matrix (depicted by the triangle of conflict). Thus, our personality is expressed in our interpersonal patterns as well as in how our intrapsychic matrix is organized and structured. For example, a father who tends to be authoritarian and controlling may create angry and hostile feelings in his son. To protect himself, the son may learn ways of expressing this hostility that are not open to direct attack. For example, the son might adopt a passive defense system, such as stubbornness, forgetting, and withholding love. Although he may appear to be compliant and pleasing on the surface, he is expressing hostility by resisting his father’s control in passive-aggressive ways. He may forget to do something his father has asked him to do or deliberately underperform in a sport his father values. If this type of personality pattern is consolidated over time, the son might become an individual who uses passive-aggressive traits to deal with conflict. This would leave him ill-equipped to deal more openly or constructively with his feelings of anger. (See Chapter 10 for a complete description of the personality disorders.)

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MonkeyBusinessImages/iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Clinical interviews are used to gather background information on the client and guide the interpretation of standardized tests.

3.5 Assessment Strategies and Tools for Contemporary Psychodynamic Models Contemporary models of psychodynamic personality theory utilize a wide array of assessment strategies and tools, though many are similar to the projective tests reviewed in Chapter 2, with the key difference being that some of the assessment tools have since been revised. Thus, in this chapter, we will emphasize some of the revisions to the Rorschach and TAT, as well as the literature that evaluates the current status of psychodynamic assessments. We will also review the clinical interview and attempts to objectify that approach.

The Clinical Interview

Psychodiagnostic interviewing methods and techniques are a mainstay of psychodynamic approaches. Psychodynamic theory emerged and was later expanded almost exclusively within the context of clinical settings while working with patients. Therefore, it is not surprising that one of the most central assessment tools for the contemporary psychodynamic theorists is the clinical interview to facilitate diagnostic decisions and treatment directions.

The structural interview, which was pioneered by Kernberg (1984) and Davanloo (1980), is used to assess the integrity and structure of the personality by presenting anxiety- provoking questions that serve to activate the defense system. This allows for moment-to-moment observation of how emotions are regulated, how defenses are mobilized when anxiety increases, and how effective the individual is with respect to interpersonal or object relatedness. Although this approach effectively maps on to contemporary object- relations theory as espoused by Kernberg, it lacks sufficient detail and standardization, thereby undermining some of the basic psychometric properties necessary to qualify as formal test. Indeed, it might be argued that it is better characterized as a technique (see Dahlstrom’s 1993 criteria for what constitutes a psychological test).

More recently, a semi-structured interview was developed to capture Kernberg’s theoretical formulations, the Structured Interview of Personality Organization (Stern et al., 2010), and the data suggest that it has reasonable psychometric properties when assessed in a clinical sample.

Although not specifically designed to capture the constructs forwarded by object-relations theory, other structured diagnostic interviews have been developed, most notably the Structured Clinical Interview (SCID), described in Chapter 1, which assesses personality disorders outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Psychiatric Disorders. There have been hundreds of published studies using the SCID, and it has been translated into many different languages, indicating its broad acceptance in the field and diagnostic success. The SCID was designed for use by trained mental health professionals and represents one of the more successful attempts at converting the DSM’s nosological

structure into a usable diagnostic tool.

However, other attempts to standardize diagnostic interviews have been decidedly less effective (e.g., Linden & Muschalla, 2012) with low to moderate inter-rater reliability (Rettew, Lynch, Achenbach, Dumenci, & Ivanova, 2009). One of the primary factors undermining the adaptation of clinical interviews into more standardized forms and tests that they are less regimented; they rely heavily on the clinical skill of the diagnostician, as was noted in Chapter 1. However, research shows that a systematized assessment is superior to any test that relies primarily on the skills of a clinician (e.g., Dawes, Faust, & Meehl, 1989).

Projective Tests

Another important assessment approach developed by psychodynamic innovators is a range of projective techniques. These include projective drawings such as the Draw-a- Person (DAP), House-Tree-Person, and Kinetic Family Drawing, as well as sentence completion forms such as the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) and the Washington Sentence Completion Test (Weiner & Greene, 2008). These methods are based on the assumption that we tend to project our thoughts and feelings onto ambiguous stimuli—such as when we look at clouds and see fantastic worlds in them. Survey research suggests that despite their problems, projective tests remain somewhat popular (Lubin, Larsen, & Matarazzo, 1984; Watkins, Campbell, Nieberding, & Hallmark, 1995).

TheThe Rorschach Rorschach Test Test

Probably the most famous of the projective tests is the Rorschach Inkblot Method, which, despite considerable criticism, still holds an important position in both psychodynamic assessment and research. Indeed, this instrument continues to be used extensively in the personality assessment of both children and adults (Goode, 2001) and is the most frequently used among the projective tests (Lubin et al., 1984).

Developed in the 1920s by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1921/1942), the test was based on a popular European parlor game that involved making inkblots and then telling a story about them. Rorschach devised the test by spilling ink on paper and folding it in half, creating symmetrical inkblots, 10 of which were selected for the test.

There are a variety of ways to score responses to Rorschach ink blots. In Chapter 2 we referred to the earlier scoring methods, but here we will describe one of the more thorough attempts to standardize the Rorschach. In 1986, John Exner devised a comprehensive scoring system, including a full standardization of the administration and scoring criteria, and this is now a widely used approach. Exner promoted four primary criteria for scoring:

1. The location of the response (i.e., the specific part of the card that is being referred to by the subject);

2. the rationale for why the subject had that particular interpretation (i.e., did the shape, color, etc. play a central role in the interpretation of the stimulus), referred to as the

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determinant;

3. the extent to which the response reflects popular (i.e., commonly cited) responses; and

4. the content of the response (e.g., does it refer to human, human-like, animal, human or animal parts, blood, nature, etc.).

Exner also collected extensive norms and developed formulas to facilitate standardized scoring. As a consequence of these changes, Exner has taken what was a psychometrically inferior test, and developed an instrument with much improved reliability and validity (Hiller, Rosenthal, Bornstein, Berry, & Brunell-Neuleib, 1999).

Despite these apparent advances in the scoring, a debate continues as to the best way to utilize the Rorschach, with many practitioners still adhering to the older methods that rely more on clinical intuition (Moreland, Reznikoff, & Aronow, 1995; Ritzler, 1995).

TheThe Thematic Thematic Apperception Apperception Test Test (TAT) (TAT)

Another well-known and widely used projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Christine Morgan (who drew most of the pictures) and Henry Murray (Weiner & Greene, 2008). As discussed in earlier chapters, the TAT uses a series of ambiguous images and subjects are asked to provide a “dramatic” story that includes the events leading up to the image, the events occurring in the image, and the outcome (i.e., what will happen next). Most of those using the TAT select approximately 10 cards and they rely on their own judgment in deciding which cards to use (Cramer, 2000). The rationale is that the ambiguity of the images will facilitate a less defensive response because the respondent feels less personally threatened about the material (i.e., it is perceived as a story about the picture, not about oneself).

The original scoring system is somewhat laborious and subjective (Vane, 1981), and other more recent clinical scoring systems have been developed (see Holt, 2008). Like the Rorschach, the TAT has also received considerable criticism, most notable for its subjective scoring and questionable validity (Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000).

Beyond the Text: Classic Writings

“What if you were asked to describe images you saw in an inkblot or to invent a story for an ambiguous illustration—say, of a middle-aged man looking away from a woman who was grabbing his arm? To comply, you would draw on your own emotions, experiences, memories and imagination. You would, in short, project yourself into the images. Once you did that, many practicing psychologists would assert, trained evaluators could mine your musings to reach conclusions about your personality traits, unconscious needs and overall mental health. But how correct would they be?” (Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2001, p. 82).

In this thought-provoking paper, Lilienfeld and colleagues (2001) take a close look at the uses and misuses of projective tests. Read it at http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ newsresearch/publications/journals/sa1_2.pdf (http://www.psychologicalscience.org/newsresearch/publications/journals/sa1_2.pdf)

Hibbard’s 2003 paper provides an opposing view.

References: Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M., & Garb, H. N. (2001). What’s wrong with this picture? Scientific American, 284, 80–97. http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ newsresearch/publications/journals/sa1_2.pdf (http://www.psychologicalscience.org/newsresearch/publications/journals/sa1_2.pdf)

Hibbard, S. (2003). A critique of Lilienfeld et al.’s (2000) “The scientific status of projective techniques.” Journal of Personality Assessment, 80(3), 260–271.

TheThe Sentence Sentence Completion Completion Test Test

Sentence completion tests provide respondents with sentence stems and ask them to complete each sentence with whatever comes to mind. The assumption is that the responses will reflect internal experiences, including attitudes and affect, and that that these responses can be scored and analyzed to reveal psychological aspects of the respondent (Loevinger, 1979, 1985). Relative to other projective tests, the sentence completion tests tend to have greater face validity. Like the other projective approaches, both subjective, clinician-driven scoring and more objective, quantitative scoring methods have been developed.

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Contemporary Models: Quiz

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Chapter Summary This chapter presents a synopsis of contemporary psychodynamic theory along with some of the important developments that later psychodynamic theorists advanced in an effort to expand on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Object relations emerged as what is arguably the strongest contemporary branch, and the primacy of attachment was emphasized by a number of researchers and theoreticians, most notably Winnicott. Object relations describe the process by which significant attachment figures are internalized and their representation (objects) are carried around inside each of us. This theoretical model converges with one of the basic assumptions of cognitive theory, as both emphasize internalized representations of the outside world (see Chapter 6). Winnicott developed the concept of the good-enough mother to explain how most mothering does not need to be perfect to produce satisfactory adjustment—it simply needs to be good enough. However, if it is not good enough, it may result in psychopathology.

Self psychology was pioneered by Kohut, who suggested that normal identity development requires the mirroring of emotional experiences from others. Other theorists, such as Erikson, proposed that normal personality development extends into adulthood. He describes various stages that need to be mastered before progression to the next stage, and suggested that identity crises may occur at various developmental transition points. Narcissism is used to explain how development is derailed when the caretaker’s insufficient mirroring and lack of responsiveness causes narcissism. Kohut believed that this narcissism then leads to the core emotions of shame and rage. In contrast, when narcissistic needs are satisfied, development of a healthy self is more likely.

Ego psychology focuses on the role of the ego in adapting to the world and the defenses used to protect the personality. Two foundation constructs, the triangle of conflict and the triangle of persons, can be used to depict the dynamic processes that occur among feelings, anxiety, and defense mechanisms, as well as patterns of interpersonal relationships.

Additionally, this chapter reviewed some of the primary assessment tools employed by contemporary psychodynamic theorists and researchers, including the clinical interview and several projective tests, whose scoring has been revised to more closely align with object-relations theory.

Key Terms

Click on each key term to see the definition.

ego functions (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The mechanisms that allow an individual to maintain a balance between the demands of the outer world and internal needs and desires, as well as tolerate various forms of stress.

epigenetic principle (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The idea that how biological aspects of behavior are expressed in a particular individual is influenced by the available environmental factors.

exhibitionism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The act or practice of deliberately behaving so as to attract attention; the narcissistic manifestation of all drives.

good-enough mother (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The idea that the mother must be available at a critical level of parental functioning in order to fulfill the basic needs of uncomplicated developmental progression and healthy development.

individuation (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The process by which the infant becomes increasingly separate from his/her primary caretaker in terms of identity and self-sufficiency.

mirroring (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The act of providing an accurate response to the thoughts, mood, and feelings of another, including both reflection and affirmation.

narcissism (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A personality disorder characterized by extreme, pathological self-love.

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object-relations theory (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The notion that each of us carries around in our minds certain well-established ideas (referred to as objects), often based on our early relationships with our mothers or fathers, that influence our later relationships.

personifications (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Mental images (similar to the idea of object relations) that allow us to better understand ourselves and our world.

psychic structures (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Our internal object relations; our internalized ideas about what relationships with others are like or should be like. Also known as a schema or template.

rage (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A core emotion in narcissism, that begins as a reaction to frustrations of the infant’s narcissistic tendencies.

shame (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

A core emotion in narcissism, it rises when the parental figures—self-objects—do not provide the needed mirroring, admiration, and approval of the emergent self of the child.

structural interview (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

Tool used to assess the integrity and structure of one’s personality by asking anxiety-provoking questions that serve to activate the defense system.

symbiosis (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover/books/AUPSY330.12.2/sections/cover#)

The mother–infant unit, of which the child is initially an undifferentiated part.